Dalit Movements in India

• Introduction
• Meaning of Dalit
• Factors Responsible for the Rise of Dalit Movement in India
• Dalit Movements in India
• Trends in Dalit Movement in India
• Impact of Dalit Movements

Introduction

India’s social structure is deeply rooted in the caste system, a hierarchical arrangement based on Hindu beliefs. Traditionally, this system follows the Varna model, categorizing individuals into four main caste groups, with Dalits constituting a group outside this hierarchy. Dalits, often referred to as the lowest rank in Indian society, endure pervasive discrimination across various aspects of life. This discrimination encompasses limited access to education and healthcare, as well as constraints on residency and employment opportunities.

Within the Dalit community, there exist numerous sub-castes delineated by occupation, including leather workers, street sweepers, cobblers, agricultural labourers, and manual scavengers. Occupations such as these are typically regarded as the most degrading and are associated with societal stigma.

Official estimates suggest that around one million Dalits are engaged in tasks such as grave digging, disposal of deceased animals, and cleaning of human waste. Additionally, approximately three-quarters of the Dalit workforce is employed in the agricultural sector, with an alarming forty million being trapped in bonded labour conditions. These occupations often yield meager incomes, leaving Dalit families trapped in cycles of poverty, unable to afford basic necessities or provide education for their children.

Dalits face not only economic hardships but also social and political marginalization. The principles of untouchability and notions of purity and pollution further exacerbate their plight, restricting their freedom of movement, choice and association. Discriminatory practices prevent Dalits from living, sitting, fetching water, eating, or marrying freely, perpetuating their oppression and subjugation within Indian society.

In an article penned by Dr. Annie Besant for the Indian Review in February 1909 titled “The Uplift of the Depressed Classes,” she delineates the notion of the ‘Depressed Classes’ during the British colonial era. These classes pertained to the castes situated at the lowest echelon of the Hindu caste hierarchy, deemed untouchable and polluting by the higher caste Hindus. The term ‘Depressed Classes’ was initially mentioned in the Census Report of 1921, yet the specific castes encompassed within this classification were not explicitly defined until later. Subsequently, post the enactment of the Government of India Act 1935, these groups began to be consistently referred to as Scheduled Castes.

Herbert Risely, serving as the Census Commissioner of India in 1901, endeavoured to categorize Hindu castes. The term ‘Scheduled Castes’ surfaced for the first time in the Government of India Act 1935, originating from the discussions of the Simon Commission in 1928. The British Government then formalized this classification through the issuance of the Government of India (Scheduled Castes) Order 1936, which delineated specific castes and tribes falling under this category. Initially dubbed as Harijans, meaning ‘Children of God,’ a term coined by Narasimha Mehta and later endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi in 1933, these Scheduled Castes were thus recognized.

Meaning of Dalit

The term ‘dalit’ originated as a Marathi and Hindi rendition of the British term ‘Depressed Classes’. Over time, various names have been used to refer to this group, including Untouchables, Harijans, Depressed Classes, Dalits, Servile Classes, Weaker Sections, Panchamas, Atishudras, Avamas, Antyajas, and Scheduled Castes.

The term ‘Dalit’ signifies individuals who have been marginalized and subjected to systematic exploitation within a hierarchical social structure. It denotes people who have been oppressed and downtrodden deliberately by those in higher positions. Professor Gangadhar Pantawane views Dalit not merely as a caste, but as individuals who have been exploited by the social and economic norms of society. They reject beliefs in divine entities, rebirth, the soul, and scriptures that propagate division, fate, and a predetermined hierarchy. Instead, they uphold humanism and represent a symbol of change and revolution.

The term “Dalit” typically denotes individuals historically referred to as “untouchables,” those outside the traditional four-fold Hindu Varna system. This system originated from the functional groupings, or varnas, which were deemed crucial for societal functioning at the time.

According to traditional beliefs, Brahmins were said to be created from the forehead and entrusted with knowledge-based duties, Kshatriyas from the arms to safeguard society, Vaishyas from the thigh to support economic activities, and Shudras from the feet to serve the above varnas. Subsequently, the fifth varna, outside the four-fold system, was designated to undertake menial tasks, known socially as Dalits. The caste system entrenched this hierarchy, establishing it as fixed and hereditary with the development of Hinduism and its concepts of pollution and reincarnation.

Presently, India is home to approximately 210 million Dalits, comprising about 17% of the nation’s populace according to the 2011 census. However, despite their significant demographic presence, Dalits wield minimal control over the country’s resources, accounting for less than 5%. Official statistics reveal stark realities: half of the Dalit population resides below the poverty line, with over 62% lacking basic literacy skills. Predominantly engaged in agricultural labour, many Dalits are landless, perpetuating their economic vulnerability.

In terms of income disparity, Dalit households earned an average of Rs. 17,465 in 1998, merely 68% of the national average. Access to essential amenities such as safe drinking water, electricity, and sanitation facilities remains a luxury for less than 10% of Dalit households, underscoring their dire socio-economic circumstances. Tragically, Dalits endure frequent incidents of violence and discrimination. Many offenses against them go unreported due to pervasive fear, and even when reported, they often face neglect from law enforcement or protracted legal processes. Between 1992 and 2000, the police registered a staggering 334,459 cases of crimes against Dalits nationwide, illuminating the pervasive nature of these atrocities. These systemic injustices, compounded by enduring practices of untouchability and discrimination, have propelled Dalit communities to mobilize for change:

• Members of certain castes are barred from dining alongside others of different castes.
• Inter-caste marriages are strictly forbidden.
• Tea stalls in villages provide separate glasses for individuals of certain castes.
• Restaurants implement discriminatory seating arrangements and provide separate utensils based on caste.
• Segregation persists during village gatherings and festivals, affecting seating and food arrangements.
• Access to village temples is restricted for individuals of certain castes.
• Social norms dictate that certain caste members refrain from wearing sandals or using umbrellas in the presence of those from dominant castes.
• The Devadasi system exploits Dalit women through ritualized temple prostitution.
• Entry into homes belonging to dominant castes is prohibited for certain caste members.
• Riding bicycles within the village is forbidden for individuals of certain castes.
• Certain castes are denied access to common village paths.
• Separate burial grounds are designated based on caste.
• Access to common village resources such as wells, ponds, and temples is restricted for certain castes.
• Schools implement segregation by providing separate seating areas for Dalit children.
• Certain castes are prohibited from participating in elections or exercising their right to vote.
• During elections, individuals are coerced into voting for specific candidates or abstaining from voting altogether.
• Members of certain castes are forbidden from hoisting the national flag on Independence or Republic days.
• Wages provided to certain castes are below standard.
• Bonded labor is enforced upon individuals of certain castes.
• Individuals who refuse to adhere to caste-based duties face social ostracism by dominant castes.

Based on the preceding description, it can be concluded that the hardships and injustices experienced by the Dalits have plunged their lives into turmoil, leaving them with only one choice: to fight or perish. These circumstances have driven them to initiate a movement for change.

Factors Responsible for the Rise of Dalit Movement in India

Following factors are responsible for the rise of dalit movements in India:

1. Land Settlement: Upon British arrival in India, the predominant landownership pattern consisted of high-caste individuals who were often absent or non-cultivating proprietors. Intermediary cultivators occupied the middle stratum, while landless laborers worked the land at the bottom. Among these were the untouchable castes, who typically served as laborers, serfs, or slaves, their status subject to variation depending on locale.

To address land management, the British implemented different systems across regions: the Permanent Zamindari settlement in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and northern Madras; the Temporary Zamindari settlement in the United Provinces and the Central Provinces; and the Ryotwari system in Bombay, Madras, Berar, Sind, and Assam, collectively covering 51 percent of British India. These changes significantly impacted India’s socioeconomic landscape, including the Dalit community, catalysing the emergence of the Dalit movement.

2. Industry: The roots of modern industry took hold in the nation with significant assistance from British involvement. British support played a pivotal role in the promotion of the indigo industry, making it a major export to Britain. During the period of 1833 to 1850, the jute industry experienced significant growth and prosperity. Additionally, in 1845, the Assam Tea Company was established, marking a notable milestone. Alongside these developments, steel, coal, and leather industries also thrived.

The industrial advancements brought about profound social changes, with individuals from various castes and communities finding employment opportunities in these burgeoning sectors. The improved economic conditions fostered empowerment among the populace, catalysing movements for social change.

3. Communication Facilities: The inception of railways occurred during Lord Dalhousie’s tenure as Governor General. By 1855, significant progress was made, with the completion of a 21-mile railway line by the East Indian Railway Company, linking Calcutta to Ranigunge. Simultaneously, the Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company constructed a 37-mile line from Bombay to Kalyan, followed by the Madras to Arcot line in 1856. Additionally, advancements in communication, such as the telegraph and telephone, emerged in the latter half of the nineteenth century, facilitating the exchange of ideas and information, thus contributing to the facilitation of movement.

4. Education: The onset of modern education in the early 19th century marked a significant turning point in India’s history. With the government assuming the duty of providing education, trained and qualified teachers began imparting knowledge to the masses. This educational initiative was intentionally inclusive, transcending barriers of caste, gender and religion, and was standardized across British India. Its primary goal was to equip Indians with contemporary knowledge and values, fostering a sense of awareness that would later serve as a cornerstone for social movements.

5. Press and Books: The inception of print media in India dates back to 1780 with the launch of The Bengal Gazette, marking a significant milestone in the country’s media landscape. Subsequently, a variety of newspapers emerged, such as Samachar Darpan, Sambad Kaumodin, Prabhakar, and Rast Goftar, among others. Alongside newspapers, books also became prevalent during the 19th century.

Noteworthy publications during this era include Carey’s Grammar of Bengali and his Bengali-English Dictionary, published in 1815. Raja Ram Mohan Roy contributed significantly with works like Toohphat-at-Muhouddin, Vedant Sutra, and Vajrasoochi. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s notable works include Banglar Itihas and Bodh Gaya, among others. In Telugu literature, Muthu Narasimha Naidu’s Hita-soochanee made a significant impact.

The proliferation of print media and books played a pivotal role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the time, influencing the thoughts and actions of the populace and contributing significantly to social movements.

6. Legal System: Following the ascendancy of the British in India, a new legal framework was established. Previously, legal principles were drawn from religious scriptures, but subsequently, they were enacted by the legislative council. The Governor-General-in-Council was vested with the authority to formulate laws for the nation. Several laws held particular significance in terms of societal transformation:

• Regulation XVII of 1829, which rendered sati illegal in the Bengal Presidency.
• Bengal Regulation XXI of 1775.
• Regulation III of 1804, which imposed penalties for murder.
• The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850 ensured that conversion to Christianity did not result in forfeiture of property, among other provisions.

Dalit Movements in India

The Dalit movement addresses concerns surrounding caste-based discrimination and economic disparities, aiming to achieve social justice. Its objectives include asserting self-respect, combating the harassment of women, advocating for fair wages, opposing forced labour, resolving land disputes, ensuring the implementation of reservation policies, seeking job promotions, and defending democratic rights. This movement employs various formal and organized methods such as satyagraha (non-violent resistance) and legal action, as well as participation in state and national assemblies to raise these issues. Additionally, Dalit activism manifests through collective actions such as demonstrations, rallies, and processions, as well as initiatives like signature campaigns and protest literature. It’s noteworthy that certain untouchable castes historically harboured notions of superiority and enforced “touch-me-not-ism” within their communities.

List of Dalit Movements in India

Trends in Dalit Movement in India

The genesis of the Dalit movement was not immediate. It evolved gradually with the overarching goal of alleviating the myriad deprivations faced by Dalits and restoring their sense of dignity and self-worth. This evolution was marked by a maturation of thought and ideology over time, eventually culminating in a tangible movement. Several trends can be observed within the Dalit movements in India:

1. Initially, the Dalit Movement emerged as a Reformative endeavour aimed at cleansing Hinduism of its injustices and challenging the oppressive Caste System. Notable figures such as Chokhamela, Eknath, Kabir, and Ravidas played pivotal roles in awakening Dalit consciousness during this phase.

2. In addition to this Reformative approach, there were parallel movements striving to establish a socio-cultural framework free from caste dominance, fostering dignity for all individuals.

3. The Dalit Movement wasn’t confined to Maharashtra alone; similar undercurrents, albeit varying in intensity, were evident across different regions of India, not solely attributed to Ambedkar’s leadership.

4. Essentially anti-caste, the movement went beyond mere reform initiatives. It encompassed internal transformations, such as abstaining from alcohol and challenging customs associated with lower caste status, alongside advocating for education, employment, and political inclusion.

5. Dalits, spanning across exploited labour sectors like agriculture and peasant communities, rallied around economic and class-related issues, evident in movements like land rights advocacy across regions.

6. While evolving into a potent political force, the Dalit Movement lacked commensurate organizational prowess and financial backing.

7. As part of forging a new identity, many Dalits disavowed Hinduism, embracing Buddhism as a means to construct a more just and egalitarian society.

8. The adoption of the term “Dalit” signified a rejection of the stigma of being deemed “polluting” within the caste system, attributing their plight to its inherent injustice and aligning with the principles of the Ambedkar movement. Over time, the term “Dalit” expanded its connotations beyond ex-untouchables to encompass all marginalized groups deprived of socio-economic and cultural rights.

Conclusion: Based on the aforementioned discussion, it is evident that despite the efforts of social reformers and the presence of commendable constitutional provisions, the plight of Dalits remains unfavourable, with discrimination persisting both overtly and covertly. It is disheartening that in the 21st century, amidst India’s aspirations for global superpower status, the practice of untouchability and animosity between high and low castes continues. This situation persists due to a lack of political resolve and insufficient awareness among Dalits, resulting in inadequate enforcement of existing laws.

Although numerous constitutional and legal safeguards exist to protect Dalits, the harsh reality suggests otherwise. Socially, Dalits continue to encounter discrimination, even among the educated and those in positions of authority. A fundamental shift in societal attitudes is still awaited, as entrenched caste-based biases persist in our collective consciousness. The struggle for equality persists, echoing the timeless wisdom of Swami Vivekananda to “Arise, awake, and stop not until the goal is reached.”