Caste

• The Concept of Caste
• Meaning and Definitions of Caste System
• Characteristics of Caste
• Theories of Origin of Caste System
• Critique of Caste System
• Difference between Varna and Caste

The Concept of Caste

The foundation of the Indian social structure rests upon three fundamental elements: the caste system, the joint family system, and the village community. Among these, the caste system stands out as a cornerstone of Hindu society, deeply intertwined with its social, economic, and political frameworks. Widely regarded as the defining characteristic of Hindu society, the caste system has endured throughout history.

Originating from ancient Hindu philosophy, particularly evident in the Rigveda’s delineation of four varnas corresponding to distinct functional roles, the caste system has evolved into a complex network of hereditary social groups among Hindus. Caste functions as a form of social stratification, marked by endogamy, the transmission of occupation and ritual status across generations, and cultural norms dictating social interaction and exclusion based on notions of purity and pollution.

Structured according to the Varna hierarchy, the caste system encompasses five primary divisions: the Brahmins (priestly class with religious authority), the Kshatriyas (warrior and landlord class), the Vaishyas (mercantile middle class), the Shudras (servant and labourer class), and the untouchables, relegated to the most menial and ritually impure tasks.

This rigid hierarchy, based on ascribed social status, perpetuates inherent inequalities. Ascribed social inequality denotes a permanent status unaltered by changes in occupation or social standing.

Social stratification, a specific form of social inequality, is pervasive across all societies, delineating members according to varying degrees of superiority, inferiority, and equality. It operates through a process of differentiation, resulting in the ranking of individuals and groups based on commonly accepted criteria, thus forming a hierarchical structure of social positions. Social stratification entails the division of society into distinct layers or strata, each characterized by shared identity and lifestyle.

The caste system stands out as a cornerstone of Hindu society, deeply intertwined with its social, economic, and political structures. Serving as a traditional method of societal organization, caste in the Indian social framework fulfills four fundamental societal roles:

• Brahmins, representing the knowledge function within the Varna system.
• Kshatriyas, responsible for protection within their Varna.
• Vaishyas, tasked with rearing and economic activities within their designated Varna.
• Shudras, fulfilling the service role within their Varna.

Meaning of Caste System

The term ‘caste’ originates from the Portuguese word ‘caste’, which conveys the idea of breed, race, or group. Caste is determined by birth and remains fixed throughout one’s life. Essentially, it denotes individuals belonging to the same social group. A person is born into a specific caste, and this designation is typically permanent and unalterable. However, in modern times, there have been some alterations to the traditional caste system, as noted by MN Srinivas.

Caste can be interpreted as a type of social hierarchy characterized by a system of stratification with closed, hereditarily determined groups, maintaining endogamous practices and enforcing restrictions on inter-caste interactions. Theoretical mobility within this system is considered impossible.

Characteristics of Caste

Dr. G.S. Ghurye delineates the crucial attributes of the Indian caste system, which encompass:

1. Segmental Division of Society: In our society, there exist distinct social divisions known as castes, each constituting a tightly-knit social unit. Membership in these castes is predetermined by birth and remains fixed throughout one’s life, resulting in limited social mobility. However, as observed by M. N. Srinivas, individuals from lower castes have managed to ascend the social ladder within a generation or two by acquiring economic and political influence and adopting the cultural practices of the higher Brahmanic castes. This process, termed sanskritization, facilitates upward mobility within the caste hierarchy.

2. Hierarchical Division of Society: Caste delineates a structured stratification within society, embodying fundamental principles of social hierarchy. Each caste is assigned a specific place in this hierarchy, ranging from the apex occupied by the Brahmin caste to the lowest rung, held by the untouchables. Between these extremes lie three intermediate divisions, all positioned relative to their place within the hierarchy.

3. Endogamous Marriage: The core aspect defining the caste system revolves around endogamy, wherein individuals within a caste or sub-caste are anticipated to wed within their own social group. Deviating from this norm is strictly prohibited, often resulting in social ostracism for those who transgress. Although instances of hypergamy and hypogamy exist in certain rare circumstances, they are not condoned within the framework of the caste system.

4. Unrestricted Choice of Occupation: The conventional caste structure operates on the basis of inherited professions, where individuals of a specific caste are anticipated to pursue the occupations traditionally associated with their caste. For example, historically, Brahmins were designated as priests. Moreover, in certain instances, the name of a caste is directly linked to its occupation, such as Hazam (barber), Dhobi (laundry worker), Mochi (cobbler), Mali (gardener), Lohar (blacksmith), Sunar (goldsmith), and so forth.

5. Restriction on Food and Social Intercourse: Regulations concerning food are stringent, and adherence to them is strictly enforced. These regulations dictate what types of food and drink individuals may consume and from which social strata they may accept them. Typically, individuals from higher social classes refrain from accepting prepared meals from those of lower social standing, fearing contamination even from their mere presence or from consuming food or drink offered by them. Similarly, there are rigid restrictions on social interaction, with the belief that individuals of higher social status risk contamination if they engage with those of lower social status.

6. Taboo: Another significant aspect of the caste system involves the prohibition enforced by higher castes to maintain their ceremonial purity and refrain from mingling with individuals from lower castes.

Conclusion: Based on the preceding explanation, it is evident that each social group possesses a distinct appellation by which it is recognized. Occasionally, a profession becomes linked with a specific social group. Currently, the integrity of each social group is safeguarded not only through social regulations but also through societal norms. Furthermore, it can be observed that various influences have led to alterations in the traditional social hierarchy, with less strict adherence to the aforementioned traits. There is now a greater emphasis on skills and professions, leading to a loosening of the bonds associated with social groups.

Theories of Origin of Caste System

Numerous theories, including traditional, racial, political, occupational, and evolutionary perspectives, aim to elucidate the complexity of India’s caste system. Below, we delve into a few of these theories.

1. Traditional Theory: This theory posits that the caste system has divine origins, extending from the varna system where the four varnas were believed to originate from the body of Brahma. At the pinnacle of this hierarchy were the Brahmins, primarily consisting of teachers and intellectuals, symbolically emerging from Brahma’s head. Following them were the Kshatriyas, representing warriors and rulers, originating from Brahma’s arms. The Vaishyas, comprising traders, were said to have emerged from Brahma’s thighs, while the Shudras, symbolizing laborers, were believed to have originated from Brahma’s feet. Each varna was associated with specific duties (dharma), with the mouth representing preaching and learning, the arms signifying protection, the thighs denoting cultivation or business, and the feet symbolizing support for the entire societal structure. Sub-castes are thought to have arisen later due to intermarriages between these four varnas. Advocates of this theory often cite ancient texts such as the Purushasukta of Rigveda and Manusmriti to bolster their arguments.

2. Racial Theory: The term “caste” originates from the Sanskrit word “varna,” which translates to “color.” The caste structure in Indian society traces back to the chatur-varna system, comprising Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. According to Indian sociologist D.N. Majumdar, in his work “Races and Culture in India,” the caste system emerged following the arrival of Aryans in India. Rig Vedic texts emphasize distinctions between Aryans and non-Aryans (Dasa) regarding not only physical appearance but also language, religious rituals, and physical attributes. The Varna system during the Vedic era primarily revolved around division of labour and professions. The Rig Veda frequently mentions three classes: Brahma, Kshatra, and Vis. Brahma and Kshatra symbolized the priestly and warrior roles, respectively, while Vis encompassed the common populace. The term “Sudra,” denoting the fourth class, appears only once in the Rig Veda, representing domestic servants.

3. Political Theory: This theory posits that the caste system was ingeniously devised by the Brahmins to elevate themselves to the top of the social ladder. Dr. Ghurye suggests that caste originated as a product of Indo-Aryan culture, nurtured in the region of the Ganges, and later spread to other parts of India. Additionally, the Brahmins introduced the notion of the spiritual merit of the king, mediated through the priest or purohit, to gain favour and support from the ruling authority.

4. Occupational Theory: The caste system in India is organized based on occupation, with certain professions being considered more prestigious than others. Those engaged in respected professions are considered superior to those in less esteemed occupations. Nesfield asserts that the caste structure originated solely from the functions individuals performed. This functional differentiation led to occupational diversity, giving rise to various sub-castes like Lohar (blacksmith), Chamar (tanner), and Teli (oil-pressers).

5. Evolution Theory: According to this perspective, the emergence of the caste system wasn’t a sudden event but rather the culmination of a gradual societal evolution. Several key factors contributed to its formation:

• Hereditary Occupations: Occupations passed down through generations played a significant role.
• Brahminical Purity: Brahmins aimed to maintain their purity, influencing social structures.
• Decentralized Governance: Absence of centralized state control led to varying local customs and laws.
• Rulers’ Disinclination: Rulers showed reluctance to enforce uniform legal and customary standards.
• Additionally, the concepts of ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’ shed light on caste origins. The Karma doctrine suggests that one’s caste is determined by past life actions, while Dharma dictates adherence to one’s caste’s principles as righteous living. Upholding Dharma could lead to a higher caste birth, while deviating might result in a lower caste. Other contributing factors include:
• Exclusive Family Ideals: Emphasis on family lineage and rituals.
• Cultural Clashes: Conflicts between patriarchal and matriarchal systems.
• Racial and Color Prejudices: Struggles stemming from racial biases and conquests.
• Foreign Influences: Policies imposed by invading forces.
• Geographical Factors: Isolation of the Indian subcontinent impacted social dynamics.
• Historical Events: Consequences of foreign invasions.
• Rural Social Structures: Influence of agrarian society on social organization.

Conclusion: Based on the provided information, it becomes evident that attributing the origin of the caste system to a single theory is unfeasible. Therefore, comprehending the genesis of the caste system necessitates exploring multiple theories. Given its intricate nature, the caste system defies explanation through a singular theoretical lens.

Critique of Caste System

Criticism of the caste system has been voiced from various quarters, both within and beyond India. Throughout the nation’s history, numerous Indian social reformers have raised objections to its existence. One such figure, Jyotirao Phule, disputed assertions that the caste system was a natural order decreed by the divine. He argued that if such divisions were intended by a higher power, they would manifest universally, as they do not exist among other species. Phule contended that professions should not dictate one’s caste status, emphasizing that engaging in menial work does not denote inferiority. He equated such tasks with the essential care provided by a mother to her child, asserting that no individual should be deemed superior or inferior based on their ritual practices or occupations.

Similarly, Vivekananda condemned the caste system as a barrier to individual freedom and progress. He viewed any institution or ideology that hindered free thought and action as inherently detrimental and in need of eradication. According to Vivekananda, the unrestricted liberty to think and act is indispensable for personal development and societal well-being.

In addition to these critiques, the contemporary caste system in India faces further scrutiny for various reasons:

1. It Prevented National Unity: The caste system fostered a limited mindset, leading individuals to overly focus on their own caste identities. Often, caste concerns took precedence over the broader national welfare, undermining the notion of national unity.

2. It Stood Against Democracy: The caste system contradicted the principles of democracy. While democracy is founded on the idea of human equality, the caste system upheld inequality through a hierarchical structure, with Brahmins occupying the highest position and Shudras relegated to the lowest tier.

3. It Resulted in Suppression: In the caste hierarchy, the higher castes exert control over and discriminate against the lower castes. Those in the shudra caste face mistreatment, including being prohibited from public spaces and even having their shadows deemed impure by the upper castes. Social interaction, such as dining or mingling, with lower castes was strictly forbidden, highlighting a system built on the exploitation of those in lower castes.

4. It hindered National Development: In the caste system, a select few wielded influence over national affairs, while others were relegated to serving higher castes such as the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. It’s crucial for all segments of society to participate in social welfare for the nation’s benefit. However, marginalized groups lacked representation in national progress and development.

5. Caste System led to Treachery: In a societal framework marked by entrenched caste divisions, the shudras understood their limited prospects within Hindu society. Consequently, when faced with external invasions, certain individuals among them divulged strategic information to the invaders and collaborated with them rather than standing with their own community. Their betrayal played a significant role in the downfall of the Hindu civilization.

6. Responsible for Religious Conversion: The overwhelming influence of Brahminism became increasingly unbearable for the fourth segment of Indian society, known as the shudras, who endured significant neglect within the Hindu social structure. They found themselves drawn to the teachings and principles of Islam and Christianity as an alternative to their marginalized status. The disregard they faced led many to convert and adopt these new faiths, thus, the caste system inadvertently facilitated the spread of Christianity and Islam in India.

7. Undermined the Ability and Aspirations of Lower Castes: In the caste system, an individual’s status and role are predetermined at birth, rendering personal efforts and diligence futile in altering one’s position. Embracing one’s inherited status becomes obligatory and beyond questioning. Consequently, aspirations and capabilities hold no significance within this system.

8. A false sense of superiority among the upper castes: The upper castes of society held the belief that they possessed exclusive knowledge and wisdom. They insisted that other castes defer to them and serve them. As a result, a significant divide emerged between the upper and lower castes.

9. Responsible for the Creation of Idlers: The Brahmins, positioned at the apex of the caste system, were traditionally entrusted with the responsibility of imparting religious teachings. However, over time, they neglected this duty (dharma) and failed to fully dedicate themselves to it. Aware that their position within their castes was secure regardless of their lack of commitment, they began to rely on the labour of other castes without making meaningful contributions to society. Consequently, a segment of idle individuals emerged within the Hindu social structure.

10. Responsible for Untouchability: The most egregious aspect of the caste system manifested in the practice of untouchability. Those labelled as untouchables endured a multitude of social, economic, political, and religious hardships. Exploited under the guise of religious doctrine, they faced dehumanizing treatment. Assigned to the lowest rungs of society, untouchables were denied education for their children and relegated to menial occupations. Even among the Shudra caste, women were restricted from attire comparable to higher castes and were barred from accessing communal resources like wells, ponds, and places of worship. The lower castes were coerced into compliance with religious edicts and societal norms through fear of divine retribution and the weight of tradition.

11. Lower Status to Women: In the caste system, women faced profound neglect, confined to a conservative and traditional role without access to higher education or a voice in public affairs. Those from higher castes endured additional hardships such as child marriage and the ban on widow remarriage, leading to lives filled with uncertainty. The pressure to bear sons turned women into mere childbearing machines, detrimentally impacting their physical and mental well-being. Instances of sexual harassment by higher caste men further exacerbated their plight, yet societal norms stifled any attempts to protest. Overall, women occupied a deeply marginalized position within the caste system.

From the given portrayal, it becomes evident that while the caste system may have initially served certain positive functions, over time it deteriorated, causing significant harm rather than social good. The urgent need of the hour lies in transforming societal attitudes and dismantling this antiquated hierarchical structure to ensure equity in contemporary times. Presently, the caste system poses a substantial obstacle to societal progress and development.