- Introduction
- The Concept of Disparity
- Disparity As a Problem
- Causes of Disparity
- Types of Disparity
- Disparity and Development
- Solutions to the Problem of Disparity
Introduction
Variations are inherent in both individuals and societies, constituting an integral aspect of human existence. These discrepancies encompass a spectrum from biological to historical distinctions, persisting as societies transition from simplicity to complexity. As societal advancement occurs, the divergence among communities becomes more pronounced. However, the presence of differences does not necessitate unequal treatment within a community. Such differences should not engender disparities in rights or opportunities among its members.
Disparity denotes an observable inequality typically regarded as unjust. Economic disparities are evident among various ethnic groups, and discrepancies in wages between genders in similar professions highlight such injustices.
The term “disparity” essentially denotes a discernible divergence between individuals or entities. Its etymology aligns closely with the concept of “difference,” encompassing variances in taste, preference, aesthetics, or even when contrasting products or models. Consequently, in this context, “disparity” simply implies differentiation.
Furthermore, “disparity” can extend beyond tangible comparisons to encompass gaps between expectation and reality. This usage reflects comparisons between events and anticipated outcomes, still emphasizing the underlying notion of difference.
The Concept of Disparity
As mentioned earlier, within social sciences and economics, the term “disparity” encompasses differences. It refers to situations where unequal opportunities, rights, benefits, or incentives are granted to certain groups over others due to factors such as class, gender, age, or race. Social inequality, manifested as disparity, is a pervasive issue across modern societies globally, spanning from industrialized regions like North America and Western Europe to nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
The problem of disparity requires immediate discussion, attention, and action, as it adversely affects various groups such as women, children, LGBTQ+ individuals, and minorities in different societies. It is a persistent challenge shaped not only by historical contexts but also by the ongoing evolution of human civilization.
Disparity refers to a conspicuous and frequently unjust variance between individuals or entities. Etymologically, “disparity” is often interchangeable with “difference.” Most dictionaries characterize it as the state of exhibiting a notable contrast between items or individuals under comparison. It extends to matters of taste, preference, aesthetics, or when evaluating products, models, or objects. Essentially, in this context, disparity signifies mere distinction.
Moreover, the term “disparity” can depict the divide between anticipation and actuality, or the discrepancy between projected outcomes and eventual results. Rather than juxtaposing tangible entities or individuals, it encompasses the comparison of events and expectations. Nonetheless, its essence remains rooted in the notion of distinction.
Disparity As a Problem
The most significant issue with societal inequality lies in its allocation of opportunities, legal, political, and economic rights, along with associated benefits, to certain individuals while denying them to others or to all members of society, despite these resources being ideally accessible to everyone. This inequality poses several concerns, including:
1. Poverty: Social inequalities persist across various societies, spanning from advanced industrial nations to developing regions. These disparities often marginalize specific individuals based on factors such as gender, ethnicity, minority status, and race. The resulting dearth of opportunities frequently leads to poverty and social alienation for many affected groups.
2. Crime: Social inequality and displacement, often stemming from inadequate legal, political, and economic measures, pose significant challenges and foster societal instability. Those affected, grappling with the ramifications of economic inequality and social injustice, may resort to unlawful behaviour and violence. Numerous sociological and economic investigations have highlighted the correlation between disparities in social and economic status and the prevalence of criminal activity. Individuals are inherently driven to secure basic necessities for their families, including education and healthcare. However, when faced with limited opportunities and insufficient support systems, some may feel compelled to engage in criminal acts to meet their financial obligations and provide for their loved ones.
3. Social Unrest: Individuals affected by different types of inequality might advocate for changes aimed at achieving political, legal, and economic equity, along with safeguards against discrimination. Typically, these advocacy efforts adhere to peaceful and lawful means. The challenges stemming from disparities are diverse and vary from one nation to another. While certain socio-economic issues based on inequality are prevalent across the globe, their prominence differs from country to country.
Causes of Disparity
The fundamental reasons behind inequalities can be examined through the following subsections:
1. Failures of Economic Growth: Economic growth often falters due to the persistent challenge of income inequality, leading to widespread poverty and hunger. The Human Development Report of 2003 highlights that to double incomes within a generation while maintaining consistent inequality levels, a country must achieve an annual growth rate of 3% or higher. However, only a minority of countries, 30 out of 155, managed to sustain such growth rates in the 1990s. Conversely, 54 countries experienced declines in average income, while 71 countries saw growth rates below the critical 3% threshold. Consequently, over 1.2 billion individuals currently grapple with survival on less than $1 per day due to this underwhelming growth performance.
2. Inequalities in Land Ownership: Land holds paramount importance for rural communities, with approximately three-quarters of the global population relying on agriculture for sustenance or income. However, a significant portion of rural inhabitants in developing nations lack secure land tenure, with around a quarter being landless or possessing insufficient land rights. In countries like India, the disparity in land ownership is stark, where the top decile of rural households control over half of the agricultural land, leaving only a fraction for the bottom 70 percent. This skewed distribution of land ownership significantly contributes to poverty and income disparities within rural areas.
3. Private Ownership of Trade: Many developing nations operate under a mixed economy model, blending aspects of capitalism—such as private ownership of industries, trade, and property—with elements of socialism, such as a welfare state. In these economies, industries and businesses have access to capital from various sources, including banks, financial institutions, and equity markets. This diversified capital acquisition enables them to sustain asset growth even during periods of economic downturn, such as recessions.
4. Professional Training: The earnings of business executives, engineers, physicians, lawyers, and other professionals frequently reach high levels, leading to a misconception that income disparities stem solely from professional aptitude. However, in developing nations, the opportunity for acquiring the necessary training for professional proficiency isn’t universally accessible. Higher education and specialized training are often reserved for children from affluent backgrounds, while those from agricultural labourers, industrial workers, and marginalized groups such as tribals and Harijans face significant barriers to accessing such education and training opportunities.
5. Inflation and Adverse Terms of Trade: Changes in relative prices and terms of trade have a significant impact on poverty levels and income inequalities. The severity of poverty is closely tied to low-income levels and the vulnerable circumstances of the impoverished. These individuals experience a decline in exchange entitlement, which refers to the terms under which they can exchange their commodity bundle for desired goods, such as food. Rapid inflation has resulted in the erosion of purchasing power for landless workers, reducing it by nearly two-thirds in a short timeframe. To afford food, they are forced to sell personal assets like land and cattle. Consequently, income disparities between the wealthy and the impoverished widen significantly, emerging as a key driver of inequality.
6. Poor Availability of Credit: In many developing nations, government sectors often lack accessible credit facilities. The cumbersome documentation requirements associated with obtaining credit from these sectors lead people to turn to informal capital markets, where they are subjected to exorbitant interest rates. Consequently, individuals feel marginalized and disconnected from the broader society, exacerbating existing disparities.
7. Urban Biasness in Private Investment: Approximately 70 to 80 percent of individuals in developing nations reside in rural regions, yet roughly 80 percent of private investments are directed towards urban industries. This results in a noticeable preference for urban areas in private investment, manifested as heavily mechanized ventures with a relatively small portion of wages allocated. Consequently, the pace of job generation within capital-intensive sectors is sluggish, occasionally failing to keep up with the expansion of the labour force. This situation leaves aspiring workers feeling marginalized, thereby exacerbating existing disparities.
8. Role of the Government: While it’s commonly asserted that the state plays a pivotal role in driving economic transformation in developing nations, the reality is that state investment primarily complements private investment. Within this context, governments typically maintain the existing order and implement policies that sustain the dominance of the wealthy classes and their affiliates, leaving others feeling marginalized.
9. Displaced Persons due to Conflicts: Armed conflicts, insurgencies, separatist uprisings, and ethnic tensions in numerous developing nations have uprooted countless individuals from their residences, resulting in numerous heinous crimes and the loss of innocent lives. For instance, in 1995, an estimated 46 million people were displaced from their homes due to such turmoil. According to the Human Development Report of 1997, conflicts in impoverished nations impede efforts to alleviate poverty, directly affecting both natural resources and societal cohesion. Typically, while those with political connections and wealth can mitigate much of the fallout from conflicts, it is the economically disadvantaged who bear the brunt of the suffering.
Types of Disparity
People around the world encounter a range of inequalities, each with its own degree of prevalence. Disparities vary from one community to another, with some facing certain forms while others may not. Additionally, individuals may experience multiple types of disparities simultaneously, such as grappling with both gender and economic inequality. Here are some common types of disparities found across many societies worldwide:
1. Gender Disparity: Gender disparity refers to the inequality between men and women in terms of status, conditions, and opportunities, often influenced by institutional, legal, political, and cultural factors that typically advantage men. It is a prevalent and widespread issue affecting women, who comprise half of the global population. The manifestations of gender disparity vary across continents. In some regions, such as certain Muslim countries, women may face restrictions on their rights, including dress codes and social conduct, which tend to favour men within the societal framework.
In more developed and affluent societies like the West, gender disparity often manifests as limited opportunities for women in employment and career advancement. The concept of the “glass ceiling,” coined in the 1980s, illustrates the invisible barriers preventing women from reaching higher positions of influence and leadership. Gender disparity not only impacts women directly but also contributes to broader inequalities such as wealth and income disparity. Barriers like the glass ceiling hinder economic opportunities and progression, resulting in lower wages, income, and wealth for those affected by gender inequality. This social phenomenon permeates various aspects of society, intersecting with factors like race, culture, and class. Its effects extend beyond women to other marginalized groups, including LGBTQ+ individuals, who experience social and economic marginalization and various forms of discrimination.
2. Wealth & Economic Disparity: Wealth and economic inequality encompass the unequal distribution of opportunities, resources, and overall financial assets among individuals or certain societal groups. Essentially, it signifies the gap between those with significant wealth and those with limited financial means. Access to essential resources often requires financial resources, leaving those without wealth unable to obtain them. Consequently, wealth and economic inequality compound other societal disparities. For instance, individuals facing discrimination based on factors such as culture or gender may encounter heightened challenges in accessing crucial resources if they lack financial means. This inequality perpetuates itself across various social structures, deeply ingraining itself in the fabric of society and reinforcing other forms of disparity, thus becoming a pervasive and enduring aspect of social and historical contexts.
3. Income Disparity: Income and wage inequality often stem from broader disparities, including those based on gender and race. Historically, certain groups have faced barriers to accessing employment opportunities, and promotions have frequently been contingent on factors like race, gender, or socio-economic status. Consequently, significant gaps in income and wages arise. Moreover, income and wage disparities can contribute to disparities in health and healthcare. Individuals with lower incomes may struggle to afford basic necessities such as food, clothing, and housing, which can have adverse effects on their health and that of their families. Limited financial resources can also impede access to healthcare services, including medications, hospital care, and physician consultations. However, many developed and prosperous societies have taken steps to address this issue.
Over time, income and wage disparities can widen the divide between high-earning and low-earning individuals, leading to broader wealth disparities within society. This, in turn, can exacerbate existing inequalities, including those related to gender and race.
4. Racial Disparity: Racial inequality poses a significant challenge in diverse societies where various racial and ethnic groups coexist. Unlike more homogeneous nations, which typically comprise a single racial group, multi-racial societies like the United States exhibit a broad spectrum of racial and ethnic diversity. Within such societies, racial disparity manifests in multiple dimensions, including education and the justice system. For instance, statistics reveal a disproportionate representation of Black individuals within the American prison population.
Despite the principle of equal educational opportunities for all racial groups, studies indicate persistent disparities in school readiness, with Black students often experiencing the greatest challenges. This phenomenon can be attributed, in part, to prevalent racial biases among educators, particularly those who are predominantly white, regarding the capabilities and potential of Black students.
5. Social Disparity: Social disparity encompasses discrepancies across various facets of society, including the justice system, education, academia, corporate entities, and political arenas. These inequalities stem from broader disparities such as wealth, gender, or racial gaps. Scrutinizing social disparity serves as a barometer for understanding how systemic inequities permeate society. For instance, observing academia reveals societal attitudes toward women or specific racial demographics. Similarly, analyzing the educational landscape unveils disparities in access to quality education. The examination of social disparity offers insights into the broader landscape of inequalities within a society or community. It provides a means to assess the relative power or vulnerability of specific groups, genders, or races within a society, and how these disparities shape societal dynamics.
6. Health Disparity: Health inequality often stems from broader social inequalities, particularly those related to wealth and income. Limited financial means prevent individuals and families from accessing essential resources like food and healthcare services, exacerbating disparities in health outcomes. These health disparities, rooted in economic inequality, are compounded by other forms of marginalization, such as racial and caste discrimination. Marginalized racial and ethnic groups often face systemic barriers to healthcare and are disproportionately affected by malnutrition and disease. For instance, in many developing nations, racial and cultural minorities experience higher rates of malnutrition and illness due to their limited access to basic necessities like food and clean water. This lack of access further contributes to the spread of diseases within these marginalized communities, exacerbating their health challenges.
7. Healthcare Disparity: Healthcare inequality encompasses the unequal access to insurance, both public and private, experienced by individuals, racial groups, or gender communities. It also encompasses discrepancies in the quality of healthcare provided to those facing various forms of social inequality. Once again, disparities in wealth and income significantly contribute to healthcare inequality. Those earning low wages often cannot afford private insurance. Like other forms of social inequality, healthcare inequality serves as a notable indicator of pervasive disparities. Statistics consistently reveal that the majority of those able to afford health insurance in the USA are white individuals, while black and other racial minority groups typically lack such access.
Disparity and Development
Disparity and development share a close relationship, akin to two interlinked facets. Developmental disparities not only impede further progress but also undermine the prospects of development. A reduction in such disparities augments the likelihood of development, while heightened gaps diminish these prospects. For instance, nations like the U.S.A., Norway, and Sweden exhibit relatively lower gaps in terms of per capita income, consumption, and resource accessibility between their affluent and impoverished citizens, in contrast to countries such as India, Bangladesh, and Nepal, where such disparities are pronounced.
These developmental disparities, primarily economic in nature, can be traced back to the industrial revolution of the 18th century, which originated in England and subsequently spread worldwide. The process of modern international growth encompasses three major dimensions:
- Economic growth, which has largely benefited a small fraction of the global populace.
- The widening gap between developed and underdeveloped nations has intensified over time.
- Widespread poverty and disparity persist among underdeveloped countries as well, further exacerbating the divide.
Modern economic growth has remained localized, leaving many third-world countries trapped in what economists term a “low level of equilibrium.” While this phenomenon sheds light on persistent economic disparities, it does not necessarily support the notion that international inequalities have worsened over time.
A stark discrepancy in output composition between developed and underdeveloped nations underscores this divide. For instance, the relatively backward third-world countries, categorized as low-income economies, contribute only 3.1 percent to global industrial output. This statistic vividly illustrates the chasm between the two economic tiers. Additionally, despite agriculture being the primary occupation in underdeveloped countries, their position in agricultural production is precarious, accounting for roughly half of global agricultural output.
Outdated techniques persist in the primary sector, particularly in agriculture, contributing to its stagnation. Globally, there exist significant disparities in capital distribution and accumulation rates. Currently, underdeveloped nations hold less than one-sixth of the world’s capital stock, and their slower capital accumulation compared to developed countries exacerbates the gap, both in absolute terms and relative to industrialized nations.
As these disparities widen, marginalized populations risk exclusion from the developmental process, limiting their access to its benefits. This holds true not only at the national level but also for communities, groups, and individuals within these countries. Hence, urgent action is needed to rectify this imbalance and prevent further widening of the gap. Implementing viable solutions is crucial to fostering equitable economic development.
Solutions to the Problem of Disparity
Addressing the issue of disparity in its various manifestations is a significant global challenge. Several measures can be implemented to narrow the gap and diminish the prevalence of this issue:
- Governments worldwide need to proactively engage in efforts to tackle disparity. As the largest institutions with substantial resources at their disposal, governments can enact reforms and initiatives to address inequality effectively.
- Education plays a crucial role in combating disparity. Prevailing societal attitudes towards class, gender, race, and minority groups often perpetuate disparities. By challenging and dispelling these biases, educational programs can contribute significantly to reform efforts aimed at reducing disparity.
- Promoting respect for all individuals is essential across various institutions, including families, governments, schools, religious institutions, and civic organizations. Upholding the principle that everyone deserves equal rights, care, and opportunities, regardless of their background, is crucial. As Martin Luther King Jr. famously stated, the equality of all individuals is a fundamental truth that, when embraced, can contribute to mitigating disparity.
Measures to Overcome Disparities
Various approaches and measures can be implemented to address inequalities:
1. Strategy to Reduce Disparities: The World Development Report outlined a plan aimed at mitigating inequalities by prioritizing poverty reduction through three key approaches:
- Promoting opportunity: This involves initiatives to boost employment, access to credit, infrastructure development such as roads and electricity, and improving essential services like education, clean water, sanitation, and healthcare.
- Facilitating empowerment: This strategy entails establishing robust and accountable institutions that work to uplift the disadvantaged sections of society.
- Enhancing security: This aspect focuses on minimizing the susceptibility of individuals and communities to various threats including economic downturns, natural calamities, health crises, disabilities, and violence.
2. Measures to Reduce Disparities: Here are the key steps to enact the aforementioned strategy and diminish poverty and income disparities in developing nations:
- Land Reforms and Redistribution of Land: Introducing land reforms and redistributing land in rural areas, especially in developing nations, holds transformative potential. Addressing land ownership disparities through redistribution can effectively mitigate inequalities prevalent in these countries. Thus, implementing comprehensive land reform initiatives and redistribution measures has the capacity to notably diminish income disparities.
Programmes to Increase Employment Opportunities
The strategies implemented to enhance job prospects in developing nations can be classified into two main groups:
1. Measures for general employment: These strategies typically encompass a range of actions aimed at bolstering wage employment opportunities. Governments pursue a dual approach to achieve this goal: first, by augmenting investment levels, and second, by enhancing the investment-to-income ratio wherever feasible.
2. Measures for specific employment to skilled personnel: This classification encompasses measures designed to support self-employment endeavours. Such measures may involve offering training to individuals interested in establishing their own small-scale enterprises or ventures, providing financial aid under favourable terms, supplying raw materials at reduced rates, and facilitating marketing opportunities, among other forms of assistance.
3. Enhancing Production of Informal Sectors: Developing nations ought to acknowledge the significant role played by the informal sector in bolstering employment and adopt measures that promote its growth. Central to this strategy is enhancing the productivity and working conditions of small-scale producers and micro-enterprises. Interventions should leverage the entrepreneurial dynamism inherent in the informal sector to swiftly enhance living standards and job prospects. By fostering such initiatives, a conducive environment can be established for mitigating various forms of inequalities.
4. Emphasising Industrialisation: Focusing on growth strategies tailored to labour-intensive sectors like textiles, clothing, electronics, and small-scale agriculture can propel developing nations towards high growth rates, full employment, and increasing wages. This approach underscores the importance of prioritizing labour-intensive industrialization as a means to create more job opportunities in these countries.
5. Programmes for Upliftment of the Poor: While various governmental and non-governmental entities have initiated programs at both international and national levels, there remains a pressing need for enhanced collective efforts. These endeavours play a pivotal role not only in the eradication of marginalization but also in effectively reducing disparities. To address the plight of the rural poor, the Government of India has implemented several initiatives aimed at generating employment opportunities and providing support. Among these initiatives are the Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL), the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY), Swarna Jayanthi Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), and the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.
6. Progressive Tax Policy: Developing nations’ governments have the opportunity to address income disparities through strategic tax policies. One approach involves implementing progressive direct taxes, wherein higher-income individuals are taxed at higher rates compared to lower-income individuals. The World Development Report of 2006 proposes two key methods to boost tax revenues in these countries:
- Increasing the imposition of property taxes, which currently contribute minimally to the overall tax revenue.
- Implementing inheritance taxes to generate additional revenue streams.
7. Investment in Human Resource Development: Economies that boast high employment rates typically prioritize the enhancement of human capital, emphasizing education, healthcare, and skill development. Moreover, they consistently update technical proficiencies to ensure workers can adeptly navigate evolving global landscapes. Achieving this demands more than just formal education—it necessitates targeted skill training aimed at boosting productivity. By providing workplace training, individuals can effectively grasp evolving technologies while continually honing their creativity and efficiency. Additionally, allocating substantial resources to research and development further reinforces this growth trajectory.
8. Social Security System: The existing strategies fail to address the needs of the growing population of elderly and disabled individuals in developing nations. This trend stems from both increasing life expectancy and the erosion of traditional family and community support systems. Unlike in many developed countries where social security coverage is widespread, these vulnerable groups in developing nations often lack such support. Urgent policy interventions are essential to extend coverage to these demographics. Providing preventive and essential healthcare services to impoverished elderly and disabled individuals should be prioritized, with additional financial or material assistance as needed.
References:
Reduce inequality within and among countries, United Nations, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/inequality/
Development challenges and solutions, UNDP, https://www.undp.org/development-challenges-and-solutions