Emile Durkheim’s view on Religion

• Theories of Religion: An Introduction
• Emile Durkheim
• Durkheimian Definition of Religion
• Refutation of the Previous Explanations of Religion
• Types of Religion
• General Theory of Religion
• Criticisms

Theories of Religion: An Introduction

Each major sociological framework offers a unique perspective on religion. The functionalist viewpoint, exemplified by Emile Durkheim, emphasizes religion’s role as an integrative force in society. It fosters collective beliefs, promoting cohesion and a shared sense of identity.

Max Weber’s perspective focuses on religion’s support for other social institutions. He believed that religious belief systems provide a cultural framework that influences the development of institutions like the economy.

In contrast, Karl Marx viewed religion through the lens of conflict and oppression. He saw it as a tool used to maintain class stratification and justify social hierarchies, reinforcing the subordination of individuals to divine authority.

Symbolic interaction theory examines how individuals construct their religious beliefs within specific social and historical contexts. This framework highlights the variability in interpretations of religious texts and practices, emphasizing that meanings are socially constructed and subject to change over time. Therefore, different groups may interpret religious texts differently based on their unique perspectives and experiences.

Sociological Theories of Religion

The ideas of three early sociological theorists continue to influence the sociology of religion till date:

1. Emile Durkheim

2. Max Weber

3. Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski

1. Emile Durkheim: Emile Durkheim’s seminal work, “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life” (1912), stands as a pinnacle in the realm of religious sociology, hailed for its depth and originality. Unlike his previous study on suicide, which drew from various statistical sources, this work delved deeply into a single case study: the Australian aborigines. Durkheim chose this group as they epitomized the most rudimentary forms of religious expression within a culture.

In this work, Durkheim embarked on two key objectives: first, to establish that religion was not of divine or supernatural origin but rather a product of society, and second, to discern the common themes emphasized by religion and their effects on societal life.

Durkheim posited that religion is inherently social, manifesting as collective representations that mirror collective realities. He argued that religion serves as a source of solidarity, imparting meaning to life and playing a crucial role in the social fabric. It offers mechanisms for social control, cohesion, and purpose, fostering communication and interaction while reinforcing societal norms. In Durkheim’s view, religion is integral to the social system, providing individuals with a framework for understanding and navigating the world around them.

Durkheim’s interest in religion stemmed from its pivotal role as a force for solidarity and morality within society, forming a core aspect of his exploration into the problem of social cohesion. Emile Durkheim had several aims in examining the elementary forms of religion, including:

1. Firstly, Durkheim sought to fulfill his scholarly duty by addressing the societal issue of religion through his writing before his passing, aiming to gain a comprehensive understanding of the societal dynamics.

2. Secondly, Durkheim was influenced by the works of two scholars:

• W. Robertson Smith: Through Smith’s work, particularly in “The Religion of Semites” (1894), which emphasized the institutional and ritualistic aspects of ancient religions, Durkheim was inspired to develop a sociological theory of religion.
• James Frazer: Drawing insights from Frazer’s “Golden Bough,” Durkheim noted a gap in their discussions regarding the origins of religion and its modern societal functions, leading him to propose that a thorough understanding of religion necessitates examining its most primitive forms.

3. Thirdly, Durkheim aimed to address the confusion surrounding the relationship between religion and science. He argued that religion is essentially a reflection of societal values and structures, as evidenced by his study of the Arunta tribes of Australian aborigines. Durkheim emphasized the need to approach the study of religion with an open mind, rejecting preconceived notions of the supernatural and highlighting its engagement with both ordinary and extraordinary aspects of life.

Durkheimian Definition of Religion

As per Durkheim’s perspective, religion encompasses a cohesive framework of beliefs and rituals surrounding sacred elements—those deemed forbidden and set apart. These beliefs and practices serve to unite adherents into a cohesive moral community, commonly referred to as a church.

Under this definition, religion constitutes an interconnected set of beliefs and rituals pertaining to the sacred, which, by nature, are deemed forbidden or set apart. These elements forge a collective identity among followers within a designated moral community, typically termed as a church. Durkheim’s conceptualization introduces the notion of the church to distinguish religion from magic, as the latter does not necessarily entail consensus among adherents within a singular institution.

Durkheim critiqued prevailing theories of religion and proposed his own framework. Before delving deeper into his theory, it’s prudent to outline the existing interpretations of religion as posited by various theorists.

Refutation of the Previous Explanations of Religion

Durkheim’s views on religion were met with contrasting interpretations. In the initial section of his book, he challenges and discredits two particular interpretations. These interpretations stand in opposition to Durkheim’s perspective on religion, and he meticulously addresses them:

1. Animism: The concept of animism, pioneered by E.B. Tylor and outlined in his seminal work “Primitive Culture” initially published in 1871, suggests a belief in the existence of spirits, particularly those of the deceased. Tylor proposed that early humans, seeking to make sense of phenomena like dreams, shadows, and death, developed this belief.

Tylor posited that the idea of a spirit or invisible essence, often associated with dreams, emerged as a way to explain experiences beyond the physical realm. For instance, when a primitive individual dreamt of a successful hunt but woke to find it unrealized, they attributed it to a separate spiritual self capable of independent existence.

This notion extended gradually to other living beings and even inanimate objects, leading to the development of animism as a foundational aspect of early religious beliefs, according to Tylor. Similarly, Herbert Spencer, in his work “Principles of Sociology,” suggested that religion originated from a fear of ancestral ghosts possessing supernatural powers, leading to the appeasement of these spirits to ensure their favour.

Thus, primitive societies worshipped deceased leaders as gods, forming the basis for the belief in higher beings. Many anthropologists agree that animism serves as a fundamental concept underlying various religious systems.

2. Naturalism: Naturalism proposes that humans venerate transformed natural elements, implying that the worship of nature as supernatural or transcendent is termed Naturalism. In this perspective, Naturism suggests that this religious inclination stems from abstract forces within nature.

In philosophical discourse, naturalism aligns scientific methodology with philosophy, asserting that all entities and occurrences in the universe are inherently natural, thereby falling under the purview of scientific inquiry. While it rejects the existence of unequivocally supernatural phenomena, naturalism acknowledges the possibility of the supernatural influencing natural objects in detectable ways, albeit indirectly.

Central to naturalism is the belief in the complete knowability of nature, positing a sense of regularity, unity, and coherence within it, which implies the existence of objective laws essential for scientific pursuit. Naturalists view humanity’s persistent quest for empirical evidence as a testament to the efficacy of naturalistic methodology, emphasizing that while scientific theories may evolve, the underlying approach remains constant. This outlook accommodates a range of perspectives, including theistic naturalism, which posits a divine presence within the natural order.

Durkheim dismissed both concepts for the following reasons:

1. He argued that they were inadequate in elucidating the fundamental contrast between the sacred and the profane across all cultures.
2. He criticized them for diminishing religion to mere illusion, labeling this perspective as reductionistic. Durkheim contended that attributing religious experiences to collective hallucinations, whether of spirits or natural forces distorted by human fear, was overly simplistic.

Durkheim believed that his forthcoming explanation of religion would uphold its reality. He asserted that if individuals venerated society in a transcendent manner, they were venerating genuine forces. Given the enduring and profound nature of religious experiences, Durkheim maintained that they must correspond to a true reality. For him, if this reality wasn’t God, then it must be society itself, representing a reality akin to that of the divine.

Types of Religion

Durkheim delineates religion as a classification of phenomena into two distinct realms:

1. The Sacred: This realm encompasses entities designated as special or set apart by human societies, encompassing religious beliefs, rituals, deities, or anything socially recognized as warranting unique religious treatment.
2. The Profane: In direct contrast to the Sacred, the Profane encompasses that which lacks sanctity or religious significance.

The Sacred represents the domain of the numerous, the transcendental, and the extraordinary, while the Profane constitutes the sphere of mundane, utilitarian activities. When various sacred elements establish relationships of coordination and subordination, forming a cohesive system, this amalgamation of beliefs and rituals constitutes a religion.

Objects and behaviours classified as sacred hold spiritual or religious significance, serving as focal points of rites, objects of veneration, or actions deemed special within religious contexts. Conversely, the profane encompasses all else in the world devoid of religious function or significance. Despite the clear division between these categories, they intricately interact and rely on each other for their existence.

The interconnectedness of the sacred and profane realms is essential for the sustenance of both. Within society, certain elements are imbued with moral significance and reverence, thus becoming sacred, while everything else is relegated to the profane.

Religion emerges as a result of societal categorization, where certain facets are deemed sacred, set apart, and considered off-limits, forming the core of religious practice. Conversely, the profane encompasses the ordinary, the commonplace, and the utilitarian aspects of existence. The sacred evokes feelings of reverence, respect, mystery, awe, and honour, transforming ordinary phenomena into objects of veneration.

Although the distinction between sacred and profane is crucial, it alone does not suffice for the development of religion.

Three other conditions are needed:

1. Religious Beliefs

2. Religious Rites

3. Church

1. Religious Beliefs: A coherent system of religious beliefs, rites, and a communal institution are deemed necessary for the establishment of a religion. These beliefs serve to define the nature of sacred entities and their relationships with each other and the secular world.

2. Religious Rites: Religious rites dictate the appropriate behaviour in the presence of sacred entities. They serve as guidelines for individuals on how to conduct themselves within the context of religious practices.

3. Church: Central to a religion is the concept of a church or a cohesive moral community. The integration of beliefs, rites, and communal structures led Durkheim to formulate his definition of religion.

Religious beliefs and rituals forge social bonds by connecting individuals to sacred elements. This collective adherence to shared beliefs and practices is fundamental to the formation and sustenance of religion. Durkheim conceptualizes religion as a transformative force within society, wherein societal norms are shaped by religious beliefs, often akin to worshipping a divine entity. Belief, in this context, instils a conviction that motivates people to adopt behaviours or principles they may not otherwise embrace.

Durkheim delineates three categories of ritual practices based on distinct belief systems: positive, negative, and piacular or expiatory rites. Positive rites entail obligatory practices, while negative rites denote proscribed behaviours. Piacular rites involve the punishment of those who contravene established norms, serving as a form of retribution.

The term “church” as used by Durkheim is symbolic, representing a cohesive religious community rather than a physical place of worship. It symbolizes the collective adherence to shared beliefs rather than specific dogmas. This inclusion of the church concept distinguishes religion from magical practices, which may lack a unified communal structure. Thus, religion encompasses the sacred, the organization of beliefs, and the logical progression of rituals derived from these beliefs.

General Theory of Religion

Durkheim’s seminal work, “Elementary Forms of Religious Life,” delves into a comprehensive theory of religion drawn from an analysis of the most basic and primitive religious structures. This theoretical framework, often referred to as totemism, diverges from previous notions of Animism or Naturism, with Durkheim focusing on Australian tribal totemism as the linchpin for understanding religion’s origins.

In his exploration, Durkheim highlights Australian totemism as the most rudimentary form of religion observable today, centering his study on the Arunta tribes. His methodology hinges on the belief that by observing social phenomena in its most elemental state, one can uncover its true essence. For Durkheim, totemism serves as a window into religion’s fundamental nature.

In Durkheim’s view, totemism epitomizes simplicity in religion. At its core lies the veneration of an impersonal, nameless force, simultaneously immanent and transcendent, which he identifies as society itself. Key concepts in his analysis include the notions of clan and totem. A clan, he explains, is a kinship group not solely bound by blood relations but united by association with a particular plant or animal species.

Within the Australian tribes Durkheim scrutinizes, totems manifest in diverse forms, each with its emblem. Many clans possess objects—such as wood pieces or polished stones—bearing symbolic representations of their totem. Known as ‘Churinga,’ these ordinary items undergo a transformation upon bearing the totem’s emblem, acquiring a sacred quality associated with the totem itself.

1. Durkheim argues:

“Totemism embodies a unique religious force, transcending individual animals, men, or images. It’s an anonymous, impersonal power present within each of these entities, yet not exclusively identified with any. Rather, it pervades them all, unaffected by their individual existence. This force predates and surpasses the beings it inhabits, remaining constant amidst the flux of generations. While individuals and generations may come and go, this force persists, animating each era as it did before. Broadly speaking, it could be likened to the deity worshipped in each totemic cult, but it is devoid of personal attributes, lacking a name or history, diffused throughout the world in myriad forms.”

2. Durkheim’s assertions can be summarized as follows:

• The foundational aspects of religious thought and practice should be discernible even in the most primitive forms of religion. Durkheim suggests that beginning with an examination of simple religions is crucial before delving into more complex ones, implying a developmental view of religious history. By identifying totemism as the most basic religion, he tacitly acknowledges a progression of religious forms stemming from a common origin.
• Durkheim’s perspective on religion as socially constructed prompts him to explore causal connections between social structures and religious beliefs and rituals. He seeks to establish how features of social organization influence the content and practices of religion.

3. Raymond Aron delineates two distinct sociological interpretations of religion:

• In totemism, individuals unknowingly venerate their own society, wherein the concept of sacredness primarily attaches to the collective, impersonal force representing the society itself.
• Societies tend to generate deities or religious beliefs during periods of heightened fervour, typically occurring when social cohesion intensifies, thereby imbuing the notion of the sacred. This fervour emerges during times of intensified social interactions.

4. Additionally, Durkheim formulated broad generalizations regarding the functions of religion.

Harry Alpert’s analysis expounds four key functions of religion:

• Disciplinary function: Religious rituals instill self-discipline and a degree of asceticism, preparing individuals for social integration.
• Cohesive function: Religious ceremonies foster communal unity, reinforcing shared bonds and bolstering social solidarity.
• Vitalizing function: Religious practices uphold and rejuvenate the cultural heritage of the community, facilitating the transmission of enduring values to successive generations.
• Euphoric function: Religion counteracts feelings of disillusionment and uncertainty by restoring believers’ sense of well-being and reaffirming their faith in the moral order of their world.

Criticisms

Emile Durkheim’s theory of religion has sparked significant scrutiny both during his time and in contemporary scholarship. While his unique perspective offers insights, it is not immune to criticism, which can be summarized as follows:

1. Some scholars, like Goldenweiser, critique Durkheim’s speculative approach, finding it one-sided and psychologically untenable. They argue that Durkheim’s theory doesn’t fully account for the origin of religious sentiment within society.
2. Durkheim’s reliance on collective representations as the sole basis of religion is seen by some philosophers as mysterious and insufficient for a comprehensive explanation.
3. While Durkheim’s identification of the sacred and the profane as universally distinct supports his theory of moral authority, critics note that his emphasis on this distinction sidelines the role of gods and spirits in religion.
4. Contemporary anthropologists question whether totemism should be classified as a religion at all, suggesting it might be better understood as a form of ritual and kinship organization.
5. Criticism is directed at Durkheim’s portrayal of Central Australian totemism, with some features he highlights being either absent or significantly different elsewhere.
6. There’s no concrete evidence to support Durkheim’s assertion that Australian totemism is the earliest form of such practices.
7. Durkheim’s focus on figurative representations of totems is challenged, as many totems are not represented in this way.
8. Evan Pritchard offers several critiques of Durkheim’s thesis: a) The sacred-profane dichotomy isn’t universally applicable.
   b) Totemism isn’t inherently tied to clan religion.
   c) A clan’s totem doesn’t necessarily correlate with an individual’s totem.
   d) Durkheim’s exclusion of individual sentiment from the origin of religion is questioned.
   e) Emotional and individual aspects of religion are underemphasized in Durkheim’s theory.

Despite these criticisms, Durkheim’s sociology of religion remains highly regarded for its recognition of religion’s crucial social functions, particularly in primitive societies with strong social integration. However, its applicability to modern, diverse societies with multiple cultures, social groups, and religious beliefs is limited. Nonetheless, Durkheim’s work underscores the significance of religion in shaping social cohesion and values.

References and Readings:

The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, by  Émile Durkheim, https://amzn.to/4ir9S1I

Durkheim’s Sociology of Religion: Themes and Theories, by  W.S.F. Pickering, https://amzn.to/43F5QOH

Sociological Theory, by  Ritzer G, https://amzn.to/3Da3pcm

Sociology by C.N. Shankar Rao, https://amzn.to/41A3Wh4