Social Processes

• Introduction

• Meaning of Social Processes
• Types of Social Processes
• Cooperation as Associative Social Process
• Characteristics of Cooperation
• Types of Cooperation
• Competition: As Dissociative Processes
• Characteristics of Competition
• Conflict: As a Dissociative Social Process
• Characteristics of Conflict
• Type of Conflict

Introduction

Humans, as inherently social beings, naturally gravitate towards living in communities or seeking companionship. The notion of solitary existence poses a challenge, as humans thrive in collective settings. These groups dictate behavioural norms, with individuals’ actions influenced by one another, thus forming the fabric of social life through mutual engagement. Interaction is the cornerstone of social existence, serving as the building blocks of society.

Society, in essence, constitutes a complex network of social bonds. Understanding these bonds necessitates examining the interactions they entail. The patterns through which individuals and groups engage in social dynamics constitute what we term as ‘social processes’. These processes encapsulate recurrent modes of interaction, stemming from social engagement. It is within these interactions that two overarching types of social processes emerge: associative and dissociative, delineating the spectrum of social dynamics.

Various social dynamics manifest within society, shaping its fabric and maintaining its equilibrium. These dynamics, integral to social life, play diverse roles, facilitating cohesion and adaptation within the social system. Examples include socialization, cooperation, conflict, competition, accommodation, adaptation, acculturation, assimilation, globalization, isolation, differentiation, integration, and disintegration.

In essence, social processes encapsulate the myriad ways individuals and groups engage, adapt, and establish relationships, evolving through ongoing social interactions. They represent recurring patterns of social interaction, embodying the essence of social existence. These interactions, occurring between individuals and groups, form the bedrock of social processes, representing enduring forms of social engagement.

Meaning of Social Process

A social process entails the dynamic exchange among individuals and groups within social contexts, forming the bedrock of both micro-level group formation and macro-level societal structure. This interaction is vital for establishing social relationships, without which the very notion of society would be inconceivable.

Social processes encompass recurring patterns of social interaction, comprising various modes such as cooperation, conflict, competition and accommodation. These modes shape the fabric of social relationships and are instrumental in the formation and maintenance of societal systems.

In essence, society can be viewed as a complex network of social relations, where the nature of interactions defines the dynamics of relationships. These interactions, termed social processes, serve as the cornerstone of human interaction and relationship establishment.

Types of Social Processes

Across various eras and locations, society is governed by numerous social processes. Among them, certain core processes consistently emerge. These include socialization, cooperation, conflict, competition, accommodation, acculturation and assimilation, among others. Generally, these social processes can be categorized into two main groups:

1. Associative Social Process: A phenomenon in society that yields favourable outcomes is termed as an associative or conjunctive social process. Such processes contribute to the cohesion and advancement of society, often referred to as conjunctive social processes as well. Socialization, cooperation, adaptation, accommodation, assimilation, acculturation and similar interactions exemplify associative social processes.

2. Dissociative Social Processes: Dissociative processes refer to societal dynamics that yield adverse outcomes, contributing to the breakdown of social cohesion. They are alternatively termed disjunctive social processes. Examples include competition, conflict, contravention and isolation, among others.

Here, we will endeavour to elaborate on the intricate dynamics of these two distinct social processes:

1. Cooperation

2. Conflict

3. Competition

Cooperation as Associative Social Process

Cooperation stands as a cornerstone of social dynamics, embodying a fundamental process in societal interactions. It epitomizes a collective effort wherein multiple individuals or groups unite to pursue shared objectives. This mutual endeavour ensures that all involved parties reap the benefits of their combined efforts, spanning from personal relationships to the effectiveness of global initiatives. The innate drive for survival not only compels humans to form social clusters but also to engage in cooperative endeavours.

Cooperation manifests when two or more individuals collaborate toward a mutual objective. Whether seen in recreational pursuits among youths, business ventures among adults, labour efforts in production settings, or administrative endeavours in community governance, cooperation manifests in diverse, constructive activities that foster cohesive societal frameworks.

The concept of “cooperation” finds its roots in Latin, combining “Co,” meaning “together,” and “Operary,” meaning “to work.” Hence, cooperation entails individuals collaborating towards a shared objective or objectives. Succinctly put, cooperation involves collective efforts towards similar or mutual interests.

From the various definitions presented, it becomes evident that cooperation stands as a fundamental necessity within any civil society, serving as the foundation of numerous societal institutions. Notably, cooperation comprises two essential components: a shared goal and organized endeavour. When individuals share common objectives and acknowledge the inability to achieve them independently, they unite their efforts to realize these aims.

The inherent difficulty in resolving many personal challenges alone necessitates collaboration with others. Additionally, cooperation arises out of practical necessity. The smooth functioning of modern enterprises such as factories, department stores or educational institutions relies on the seamless collaboration among their various divisions and branches.

Characteristics of Cooperation

Following are the key characteristics of cooperation:

1. Cooperation involves social interaction between two or more individuals or groups, forming an associative process.
2. It requires conscious effort from the involved parties, who must actively work together.
3. Cooperation is inherently personal, involving direct interaction between individuals or groups striving towards a shared goal.
4. It is a continual process, marked by ongoing collective efforts towards a common objective.
5. Cooperation is not limited to specific groups or societies; it is a universal phenomenon observed across all levels of human interaction.
6. The foundation of cooperation lies in shared goals and organized efforts.
7. Cooperative endeavors are essential for achieving common objectives and are crucial for both individual and societal progress.

Types of Cooperation

Cooperation manifests in various forms. Maclver and Page have categorized cooperation into two primary types:

1. Direct Cooperation: Direct cooperation encompasses various activities where individuals engage in tasks collectively. For instance, playing together, collaborating on work tasks, sharing a burden, or jointly resolving challenges such as freeing a stuck car. This form of cooperation involves individuals performing tasks together that they could also accomplish independently. Notably, direct cooperation is typically voluntary and can be observed in relationships like those between spouses, teachers and students or employers and employees.

2. Indirect Cooperation: Indirect cooperation encompasses collaborative efforts where individuals engage in diverse tasks to achieve a shared goal. For instance, when carpenters, plumbers, and masons collaborate in constructing a house, they operate on the premise of division of labour. This form of cooperation involves individuals executing varied functions with the aim of reaching a collective objective. In the contemporary technological landscape, the demand for specialized skills and functions has intensified, leading to a swift transition from direct to indirect cooperation.

A.W. Green has divided cooperation into three primary classifications:

1. Primary Cooperation: This kind of collaboration is observed in fundamental social units like the family. Here, there exists a shared interest between the members and the group itself. Fulfilling the group’s objectives inherently involves fulfilling the individual interests within it.

2. Secondary Cooperation: Secondary cooperation occurs within secondary groups such as government entities, industries, trade unions and religious institutions. Take, for instance, the dynamics within an industry where individuals collaborate to secure their own interests, be it wages, promotions, profits, and occasionally status and influence. This type of cooperation is characterized by differing interests among individuals involved.

3. Tertiary Cooperation: This form of collaboration stems from the interaction among different large and small groups aimed at addressing a specific situation. Within this context, the attitudes of those involved in the collaboration are primarily opportunistic and the structure of their cooperation tends to be flexible and delicate. For instance, two political factions with divergent ideologies might align temporarily to overcome a common opponent in an election.

Ogburn and Nimkoff divided cooperation into three following types:

1. General Cooperation: When individuals work together towards shared objectives, it constitutes cooperation, commonly referred to as general cooperation. An example of this is the cooperation observed during cultural events and functions.

2. Friendly Cooperation: When aiming to achieve happiness and fulfilment within our community, we engage in mutual cooperation, referred to as friendly collaboration. Examples include dancing, singing, and socializing.

3. Helping Cooperation: When individuals engage in aiding those affected by famine or flood, it’s referred to as cooperative assistance.

Competition: As Dissociative Processes

Dissociative processes denote social phenomena leading to adverse outcomes, resulting in the fragmentation of society, also referred to as disjunctive social processes. Examples include competition and conflict.

Competition epitomizes one such dissociative social process, representing a fundamental aspect of social strife. It arises from an insufficiency in the availability of desired resources, where demand surpasses supply. Ogburn and Nimkoff characterize competition as arising when demand exceeds supply. Resources like sunlight, air, and natural gifts, being abundant, do not typically prompt competition.

However, resources such as power, reputation, wealth, and luxury goods, which are scarce, instigate competitive behaviour. Given the inherent scarcity within social realms, some form of competition is ubiquitous across societies. For instance, in any given society, there tend to be more job seekers than available positions, leading to competition for employment opportunities. Even among those already employed, there exists competition for advancement. Thus, competition extends beyond basic necessities to encompass aspirations for status, recognition, companionship and various other desires not readily attainable.

Characteristics of Competition

Through examination of various definitions, competition emerges as a social phenomenon characterized by several key traits:

1. Universality: Competition is omnipresent across societies and ages, manifesting within every group. This struggle for superiority extends beyond human society to encompass the realms of plants and animals, stemming from the innate drive for survival.

2. Impersonality: Competition operates devoid of personal interaction, existing as an “interaction without social contact.” Competitors remain unaware of each other’s identities, focusing solely on the desired goal or reward. This impersonal nature distinguishes competition as an affair detached from individual relations.

3. Subconscious Nature: Competing parties engage on a subconscious level, driven primarily by the pursuit of their objectives. Often, competitors lack awareness of their counterparts, exemplified by students vying for top marks without regarding their classmates as rivals. Their attention centers on the goal rather than on their peers.

4. Continuity: Competition persists incessantly, devoid of intermittent breaks. Scarce resources fuel perpetual competition, while the pursuit of status, recognition and material wealth ensures its sustained presence within human society.

5. Regulation by Norms: Competitions invariably adhere to established norms, dictating the boundaries of acceptable conduct. Participants are expected to pursue success through fair means, ensuring ethical engagement within competitive environments.

Conflict: As a Dissociative Social Process

Conflict represents a disintegrative force within social dynamics, pervasive across human interactions. It emerges when competitors shift focus from the objective of competition to their own selves.

As an opposing force to cooperation, conflict manifests as a pursuit of rewards through weakening or eliminating competitors. It entails intentional resistance or coercion against others’ wills, often taking on a personal and hostile nature. Unlike cooperation or competition, conflict aims to achieve goals by undermining competing parties.

Essentially, conflict stems from social disparities in class, status, wealth, and opportunities, particularly where resources are unevenly distributed. Psychologically, it’s seen as an instinctual response to stressful situations, which may involve fighting, fleeing, freezing, or attempting to sidestep the conflict.

Conflict arises from disparities in resources and power, leading those in advantageous positions to uphold their status by suppressing those with fewer resources and less power. This phenomenon, whether structured or spontaneous, temporary or sustained, encompasses various dimensions such as physical, intellectual, and spiritual realms. Within this context, individuals engage in competition, striving to achieve common goals.

From the aforementioned explanation, it becomes apparent that social conflict is an inherent aspect of societal existence. It constitutes a foundational element of human civilization, not stemming from irrationality or lack of cooperation, but rather from the inherent dynamics of social interactions and the distribution of resources and power.

Characteristics of Conflict

Conflict serves as a fundamental aspect of social dynamics, ingrained within human societies with distinct characteristics:

1. Universal Nature: Conflict permeates all societal realms across time and space, originating from mankind’s innate selfish tendencies and materialistic pursuits. This perennial presence underscores its significance, echoing Karl Marx’s assertion that “violence is the midwife of history.”

2. Individual Engagement: Conflict is inherently personal, driven by the intent to subdue opposing entities. Its essence lies in vanquishing the adversary, wherein competition transforms into confrontational strife. Amidst conflict, the pursuit of specific goals wanes as parties focus solely on triumphing over one another.

3. Deliberate Action: Conflict unfolds through conscious efforts to defy or thwart the intentions of others, often resulting in harm or loss for individuals or groups. Attention fixates on adversaries rather than the desired outcomes, indicating a purposeful engagement in the struggle.

4. Sporadic Occurrence: Unlike the continuous nature of competition and cooperation, conflict emerges intermittently, lacking sustained momentum. Its sporadic nature prevents societal destabilization, as prolonged conflict threatens communal cohesion.

5. Potential for Violence: Conflict occasionally escalates into violent expressions, impeding societal progress and engendering multifaceted issues. Non-violent conflict, however, fosters peace conducive to societal advancement.

Type of Conflict

Conflict manifests in myriad forms and intensities across all realms of human interaction. The categorization of conflict lacks unanimity among scholars, each offering unique perspectives on its types. Below are several scholars who have delineated conflict into distinct categories:

1. Maclver and Page delineate two primary forms of conflict:

• Direct Conflict: This type of conflict arises when a person or group actively impedes or undermines their opponent to achieve a specific objective or gain, as seen in instances like litigation, revolutions, and warfare.
• Indirect Conflict: Implicit conflict involves subtle efforts by individuals or groups to hinder their opponents indirectly. For instance, when two competing manufacturers engage in a price war, gradually reducing prices until both face insolvency, implicit conflict ensues.

2. Renowned American sociologists Gillin and Gillin delineated five distinct types of conflict as follows:

• Personal Conflict: This category pertains to conflicts arising at a personal level due to conflicting interests or ambitions among individuals within the same group. An illustrative example could be the rivalry between two qualified individuals vying for the same job position.
• Racial Conflict: These conflicts arise between different racial groups, often fueled by sentiments of superiority or inferiority. For instance, tensions between White and Black communities serve as a prime example.
• Political Conflict: Political arenas often witness clashes as various leaders or parties vie for control or influence within democratic systems.
• Class Conflict: This form of conflict arises among different societal classes, characterized by variations in power, income, and prestige. For instance, according to Karl Marx, the conflict between the proletariat and bourgeoisie stems from disparities in these factors.
• International Conflict: Nations engage in conflicts with one another when pursuing common objectives involves suppressing or competing against each other. An example of such conflict could be seen in the ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir dispute.

References and Readings:

Sociology by C.N. Shankar Rao, https://amzn.to/41A3Wh4

Sociology Themes and Perspectives by Michael Haralambos and Martin Holborn, https://amzn.to/4ibTgdY

Social Process, by  Charles Horton Cooley, https://amzn.to/4i4fleO

Explaining Social Processes, by  Charles Tilly, https://amzn.to/4i4yflR