- Introduction
- Characteristic Features of Tribe
- Classification of Tribes
- Changes in Tribal Society
Introduction
India boasts the world’s second-largest tribal population after Africa. While the terms “tribe,” “tribal,” and “scheduled tribe” may appear interchangeable, they hold distinct sociological and anthropological meanings:
- A tribe refers to a collective of people sharing a common identity and typically residing in a specific geographical area.
- Tribals are recognized as the indigenous inhabitants of a region, often referred to by various terms such as “adivasi,” “vanvasi,” “pahari,” “adimjati,” or “anusuchit janjati.”
- Scheduled tribes are those officially listed under Articles 341-342 of the Indian Constitution, constituting a constitutional category eligible for special status and benefits from the government of India.
While tribes and tribals are recognized globally, the concept of scheduled tribes is specific to India. Tribes are social groups with shared territory, culture, dialect, and a claimed descent from a common ancestor.
Cultural anthropologists define tribes as culturally homogeneous units with multiple kinship groups like families, lineages, or clans, often organized into cohesive political entities. Tribes share territory, language, cultural history, and typically practice inherited leadership.
The term “tribe” traces its origins to the Latin word “tribus,” meaning “one third,” originally denoting one of the three territorial groups forming ancient Rome. Over time, Romans applied it to various populations, both indigenous and conquered, with a distinct name, territory, and leadership.
Meaning of Scheduled Tribe
The concept of Scheduled Tribes made its debut in the Indian Constitution, outlined in Article 366 (25), which defines them as specific tribes or tribal communities recognized under Article 342 for constitutional purposes. Article 342 empowers the President, after consultation with state Governors where applicable, to designate tribes or tribal communities as Scheduled Tribes through public notification.
Moreover, Parliament holds the authority to amend the list of Scheduled Tribes outlined in such notifications, either by inclusion or exclusion of particular tribes, tribal communities, or their segments. Currently, nine Constitutional Orders pertaining to Scheduled Tribes have been enacted.
Conclusion: In summary, a tribe can be defined as a social entity bound by territorial ties, endogamous practices, often led by tribal leaders either by inheritance or selection, and unified by a common language or dialect. They maintain distinct social boundaries from other tribes or castes, distinct from the caste system’s social hierarchy. Tribes uphold their traditional customs, beliefs, and practices, resisting external influences, and emphasizing their ethnic and territorial unity.
Characteristics of Tribe
Following are the main features of Tribe:
1. Definite Geographical Area: Tribal communities inhabit specific geographical regions that serve as their shared environment. Without such a defined habitat, tribal groups risk losing essential aspects of their cultural identity, such as a shared language, lifestyle, and communal bonds.
2. Sense of Unity: A community residing in a specific locality and sharing it as their collective dwelling cannot truly be deemed a tribe unless it harbours a profound sense of unity. This cohesion is an indispensable element for authentic tribal existence, essential both in times of peace and conflict.
3. Endogamous Group: Traditionally, tribal communities have upheld the practice of marrying within their own tribe. However, in recent times, various societal shifts have influenced tribal perspectives, leading to a growing acceptance of inter-tribal marriages.
4. Common Dialect: In a tribal society, individuals share their thoughts using a shared language, reinforcing their bond and serving as a crucial aspect of their cultural identity.
5. Ties of Blood-relationship: The connection of blood ties stands as the paramount bond, fostering a profound sense of unity within tribal communities.
6. Protection Awareness: Indigenous communities consistently require safeguarding against external intrusion and encroachment. To address this, they establish a central political entity wherein all authority is concentrated, known as the tribal chief. This chief is supported by various tribal committees, each led by its own appointed leader. These leaders within the committees operate in accordance with directives issued by the tribal chief.
7. Distinct Political Organization: Each indigenous community possesses its unique political structure responsible for safeguarding the welfare of its members. The ultimate political power is vested in the tribal leader, although certain tribes may establish tribal committees to assist the leader in advocating for the tribe’s interests.
8. Common Culture: The collective culture within a tribe fosters a shared sense of unity, language, religion, and political structure. This shared culture cultivates a cohesive lifestyle among tribal members.
9. Importance of Kinship: Tribal societies are structured around kinship, which serves as the foundational element of their social organization. Within these communities, clans and lineages are typically arranged in an exogamous manner. Marriage customs among tribal members primarily adhere to principles of kinship, emphasizing tribal endogamy. Consequently, the bonds of kinship discourage divorce and subsequent remarriage within these societies.
Conclusion: Based on the preceding discussion, it becomes evident that there exists a significant discourse regarding the most appropriate means of defining tribes. This encompasses the perceived variances between ancient tribes and those existing in contemporary times, as well as the contentious issues surrounding cultural progression and the impact of colonialism. There is a prevailing notion that tribes embody a lifestyle that predates modern state structures, often considered more innate. Moreover, tribes are seen as guardians of traditional social bonds, fostering a sense of unity among their members. While tribes are characterized by homogeneity and stability, they can also exhibit tendencies towards parochialism or narrow-mindedness.
Classification of Tribe
As per the findings of the Census-2011, India’s scheduled tribes comprise 10,42,81,034 individuals, constituting 8.6% of the nation’s total population. Among them, 9,38,19,162 people reside in rural regions, while 1,04,61,872 people dwell in urban areas. Rural areas accommodate 11.3% of the overall population, contrasting with 2.8% residing in urban zones.
The People of India Project (1985), carried out by the Anthropological Survey of India, documented 461 tribal communities, among which 174 have been recognized as sub-groups. India hosts approximately 550 distinct tribes, which can be categorized into four main groups.
1. Classification on the Basis of Territory: Tribes in India can be categorized into four primary regions based on their territorial distribution.
1.1 North-North-Eastern Zone: Comprising Eastern Kashmir, Eastern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Northern Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam, and others, this region hosts tribes such as the Aka, the Mishmi, the Chulikata, and the Naga.
1.2 Central Zone: Encompassing Bihar, Bengal, Southern U.P., Southern Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa, this zone is home to numerous tribes including the Kondh, the Santhal, the Bhil, the Gond, the Muria, and the Baiga. It holds the largest tribal population concentration, with over 85 percent residing in the eight states within this zone.
1.3 Southern Zone: Consisting of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, this zone features tribes like the Toda, the Chenchu, the Kadar, and the Koraga.
1.4 Isolated Zone: Located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, this zone is inhabited by tribes including the Jarawa, the Andamanese, and the Nicobarese.
2. Classification on the Basis of Language: In this region, there are three distinct tribal linguistic groups that align closely with three primary territorial areas. Within each zone, the tribes communicate through languages and dialects classified under three distinct speech families.
2.1 Within the North-North-Eastern Zone, the majority of languages and dialects are categorized under the Sino-Tibetan speech family. However, an outlier exists in the Khasis of Assam, who communicate in a language affiliated with the Austric speech family.
2.2 The Austric Linguistic Group predominates among the languages and dialects spoken by tribes in the Central zone. Notably, tribes such as the Kondh and Gond utilize languages linked to the Dravidian speech family.
2.3 In the Southern zone, the tribal population predominantly employs Dravidian languages like Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam in various forms of communication.
3. Classification on the Basis of Race: India’s tribal communities can be broadly categorized into three racial groups based on their racial origins.
3.1 In the Himalayan regions, residing North-North-Eastern tribes are identified as belonging to the Mongoloid racial group.
3.2 Proto-Australoid racial characteristics are predominant among the tribes residing in central India.
3.3 The Negrito racial group includes tribes such as the Kadar from the south and the Andamanese from the Andaman Islands.
4. On the Basis of the Source of Subsistence: From various economic perspectives, Indian tribal communities can be categorized into the following groups:
4.1 Food-gatherers and Hunters: The tribal communities in this economic category typically reside distantly from urban centers, leading lifestyles characterized by simplicity and primitiveness in their social structures. Among these are nomadic tribes such as the Andamanese, Onge, Jarwa, Kadar, a faction of chenchus, Kharia, and Lodha groups.
4.2 Pastoral People: Tribes fitting into this economic model refrain from hunting, fishing, or conventional agriculture. Despite their separation from modern civilization, they exhibit slightly more developed social systems than food gatherers and hunters. Their sustenance primarily hinges on the rearing of cattle, including examples like the Bhotia of Almorah and the Toda of the Nilgiri hills in South India.
4.3 Shifting Cultivators: Tribes adhering to this economic framework engage in rudimentary farming practices, employing slash-and-burn techniques across three consecutive cultivation seasons. Known as Jhum in Assam, Podu among the Gonds, and ‘Jara-Kata cahas’ among the Kharias, this method is prevalent among tribes such as the Juang, Khasi, Garo, Kharia, Riang, Savara, Naga, and a segment of the Gond population.
4.4 Permanent Settled Cultivators: Tribes like the Santal, Bhumij, Oraon, Munda, Ho, and Gond have transitioned to permanent settled agriculture. They possess knowledge of crop rotation and cultivate their own lands while also engaging in sharecropping or ‘Bhag-Chasi’ arrangements with others. Additionally, many among them work as agricultural laborers. These settled agrarian communities boast highly developed and intricate social and religious structures.
Changes in Tribal Society
Communities are increasingly aware, socially and politically, of the importance of safeguarding their ethnic and cultural heritage while also defending themselves against external exploitation. They emphasize their unity in governance. However, this newfound solidarity might inadvertently lead to a form of ecological and cultural seclusion. Economic deprivation and a sense of disillusionment typically drive tribes to undertake such measures. The ensuing transformations within tribal societies include:
1. Change in Lifestyle: The lifestyle of indigenous communities, especially those residing in or close to urban regions, has undergone significant transformation. Numerous traditional practices and customs have been supplanted by unfamiliar ones.
2. Change in Cultural Identify: The process of change among tribes is preserving their identity and traditional cultural heritage while also incorporating elements of Hinduization, as observed by scholars such as Bose (1953), Dutta Majumdar (1937), Deogaonkar (1990), Raha, and Debash Ro. This phenomenon is evident among tribes like the Pati Rabhas in Assam, Hos and Juangs in Orissa, Santhals in Bihar, as well as the Bhumij, Oraon, Munda, and Korkus in Maharashtra, among others, who are adopting new cultural practices.
3. Adaptation of Other Culture: In certain regions of India, indigenous communities have embraced aspects of different cultures, including Christianity. Tribes such as the Nagas, Mizo, Santhals, Oraon, Munda, Kharia, and others in the northeastern and northwestern parts of the country exhibit this cultural fusion.
4. Indifferent Toward Traditional Life: The transformation observed within tribal individuals from Chotanagpur, who now labour in tea plantations across Assam and North Bengal, is starkly apparent in their material circumstances rather than in their religious customs and beliefs. These changes have fostered a shift towards a more individualistic perspective, leading to a growing detachment from their customary way of life.
5.Industrialization: The introduction of agro-industrial practices in tribal regions has significantly impacted the socio-cultural dynamics of tribal communities. This transformation has been evident in alterations to family structures, shifts in marriage customs, changes in authority dynamics, modifications in interpersonal relationships, and a decline in the influence of clan councils.
6. Converting into Class: Tribal workers have united as a distinct social group, thereby expanding their scope to engage in political activities. Those from tribal backgrounds, employed in mines or other sectors for extended periods, often find themselves disconnected from their communities. Consequently, they are forced to adapt to new systems, forsaking their traditional customs and embracing different mindsets and behaviours.
7. Discarding Traditional Practices: Tribal communities are increasingly abandoning their traditional customs in favor of modern ideologies, a shift often influenced by external pressures. However, this transition isn’t always beneficial for them. Numerous tribes grapple with issues of adaptation, where the pursuit of happiness is overshadowed by experiences of hardship and discontent.
Conclusion: From the description provided, it’s clear that the tribal societies have undergone significant cultural, social, and economic transformations due to exposure to diverse influences. While these changes have brought some advantages, they have also introduced various challenges to their societies. Many tribal members have experienced loss of land and forest rights, and they are susceptible to exploitation by moneylenders, wealthy landowners, traders, businessmen, and other parties.