- What is Tribe
- Meaning and Definitions of Tribe
- Characteristics of Tribe
- Geographical Profile of Tribes
- Socio-cultural Profile of the Tribes
- Locations of Tribes in India
- Changes in Tribal Society
Tribe: An Introduction
India possesses the world’s second-largest tribal population, following Africa. Three terms, namely tribe, tribal, and scheduled tribe, exist, and although they may appear interchangeable, they carry distinct sociological and anthropological meanings, each warranting individual description:
- A tribe constitutes a community of individuals sharing a common identity and typically residing in a specific geographic area.
- Tribal communities are recognized as the indigenous inhabitants of a region, often referred to by various names such as ‘adivasi,’ ‘vanavasi,’ ‘pahari,’ ‘adimjati,’ ‘anusuchit janjati,’ among others.
- The term “Scheduled Tribe” refers to any tribe listed under the provisions of Articles 341-342 of the Indian Constitution. This designation implies a constitutional recognition, entitling these communities to special considerations and benefits provided by the Government of India periodically.
Globally, distinctions exist between various types of social groups, including tribes and tribal communities, but the concept of scheduled tribes is not universally applicable. A tribe is a social entity with a defined geographical presence, characterized by shared culture, a common language, cohesive social organization and a claim of descent from a mythical ancestor.
Cultural anthropologists use the term “tribe” to describe a culturally homogeneous unit of social organization comprising multiple kinship groups such as families, lineages, or clans. These groups are typically endogamous and organized into cohesive political entities. In a political context, the term “tribe” refers to a collective of individuals sharing territory, language, cultural heritage and often some form of kinship, with established inherited leadership practices.
The term “tribe” has its origins in the Latin word “Tribus,” meaning “one third.” Initially, it referred to one of the three territorial groups that came together to form Rome. The Romans extended the term to describe the 35 groups that joined Rome before 241 B.C. Additionally, they used “tribus” to identify conquered Gallic or Germanic populations. Originally, a tribe denoted a territorially defined social group, identified by a distinct name, common territory, and shared leadership, as recognized by the Romans.
Meaning of Scheduled Tribe
The idea of Scheduled Tribes originated in the Constitution of India. Article 366 (25) defines scheduled tribes as “tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution.” Article 342 gives the President the authority, after consulting with the Governor, to specify tribes or tribal communities considered scheduled tribes in a particular State or Union Territory through public notification.
Moreover, Parliament can, through legislation, add or remove any tribe, tribal community, or subgroup from the list of Scheduled Tribes outlined in a notification issued under clause (1). So far, nine Scheduled Tribes constitutional orders have been enacted.
From this information, it can be inferred that a tribe is a social group with ties to a particular territory, practicing endogamy, lacking specialized functions, and governed by tribal leaders, whether hereditary or otherwise. These tribes share a common language or dialect, maintain social distance from other tribes or castes, and do not have social obligations similar to the caste structure. They uphold tribal traditions, beliefs, and customs, resist assimilation of ideas from external sources, and are consciously aware of their ethnic and territorial unity.
Characteristics of Tribe
Following are the main characteristic features of Tribe:
1. Definite Common Topography: Tribal people inhabit specific geographical areas that serve as a shared space for all members of a particular tribe residing in that region. Without a designated and shared living space, tribal societies risk losing essential aspects of their way of life, such as a common language, lifestyle, and a sense of community.
2. Sense of Unity: A community residing in a specific region and sharing it as a collective habitat cannot be identified as a tribe unless it exhibits a profound sense of unity. The essence of unity is an essential prerequisite for authentic tribal existence, serving as a constant requirement in both peaceful and wartime circumstances. The very survival of a tribe hinges on maintaining a cohesive bond among its members.
3. Endogamous Group: Tribal communities typically prefer to marry within their own tribes. However, due to various factors associated with modernization, the perspectives of tribal individuals have evolved, leading to an increasing prevalence of inter-tribal marriages.
4. Common Dialect: Members of a tribal community share their perspectives using a shared language. This practice not only reinforces their collective solidarity but also serves as a fundamental aspect of their cultural identity..
5. Ties of Blood-relationship: The strongest connection and formidable influence fostering a sense of unity among tribal communities is the bond of blood relations.
6. Protection Awareness: Tribal people consistently require safeguarding against external interference and infiltration. To achieve this, a unified political entity is formed, consolidating all powers under a designated figure known as the tribal chief. Various tribal committees provide support to the chief, with each committee led by its own appointed leader. The chiefs of these individual groups or committees operate in accordance with the directives issued by the overarching tribal chief.
7. Distinct Political Organization: Each tribal group possesses a unique political structure dedicated to safeguarding the welfare of its members. The primary political power is vested in the leadership of a tribal chief. Certain tribal societies establish committees to support the chief, working collectively for the benefit of the entire tribe.
8. Common Culture: The shared culture within a tribe plays a pivotal role in fostering a sense of unity, encompassing elements such as a common language, shared religion and a unified political organization. This collective culture contributes to a cohesive and homogeneous way of life among tribal communities.
9. Importance of Kinship: The foundation of tribal social structure lies in kinship. Tribal communities typically consist of exogamous clans and lineages. Marriages within these tribes are primarily founded on kinship and governed by the principle of tribal endogamy. The bonds of kinship prevent divorce and remarriage within these communities.
Conclusion: Based on the information provided earlier, there has been significant discourse regarding the appropriate characterization of tribes. This involves discussions on the perceived distinctions between tribes before the establishment of states and those existing in contemporary times, as well as debates surrounding cultural evolution and colonialism. Generally, tribes are viewed as embodying a lifestyle that predates modern states, being considered more “natural.” They maintain primitive social connections, fostering a cohesive bond among their members. Despite their homogeneity and stability, tribes may also exhibit parochial or narrow-minded tendencies.
Geographical Profile of Tribes
Tribal communities generally maintain a strong sense of identity despite external pressures that have posed threats to their culture, particularly during the tumultuous post-independence period. Notably, the advent of Christianity has ushered in a significant transformation in the lifestyle and perspectives of tribal populations, especially in the North-eastern states of India.
India harbors a substantial population of indigenous people who continue to live apart from the modern world’s influences. The Chanda Committee in 1960 established five criteria for the inclusion of any caste or community into the tribal category. These criteria encompass geographical isolation, distinct cultural practices, tribal characteristics, socio-economic backwardness, and a tendency towards shyness. Applying these criteria, 424 out of the total 461 tribal groups in India are classified as Scheduled Tribes.
India can be divided into seven zones on the basis of distribution and diversity of the tribal population which are given below:
1. North Zone: The tribal communities residing in the geographical expanse encompassing Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Sub-Himalayan Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar are collectively classified within this particular zone. Among these groups are Lahul, Lepcha, Bhotia, Tharu, Buxa, Jaunsari, Khampa, Bhoksa, Gujjars, and Kanauta, all sharing distinct characteristics associated with the Mongoloid racial group. This region confronts significant challenges such as limited accessibility, inadequate communication infrastructure, prevalent poverty, widespread illiteracy, and issues related to land alienation, constituting the primary concerns for the tribes residing in this zone.
2. North-Eastern Zone: They are of the tribes of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya and Mizoram. They all have the characteristics of the Mongoloids racial group. The major tribal groups are:
2.1 Mizoram: Lusai, Kuki, Garo, Khasi, Jayantia and Mikir
2.2 Nagaland: Naga, Kuki, Mikir and Garo
2.3 Meghalaya: Garo, Khasi and Jayantia
2.4 Sikkim: Lepcha, Bhutia, Limbu, and Tamang
2.5 Tripura: Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Kuki, Lusai, Liang, and Santhal
2.6 Arunachal Pradesh: Dafla, Khampti, and Singpho
2.7 Assam: Boro, Kachari, Mikir (Karbi), Lalung, and Hajong
2.8 Manipur: Meities, Pangals, Naga tribes and Kuki
These tribes have a very high rate of literacy and conversions to Christianity, mainly because of the missionary activities during the colonial rule.
3. Central Zone: This region encompasses the tribes residing in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Western Rajasthan, and northern Andhra Pradesh. The primary tribal communities in Chhattisgarh include Gond, Baiga, Maria, and Abujhamaria. Their significant population is centered in the Mandla district of Madhya Pradesh and the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, with additional presence in the eastern part of Andhra Pradesh.
4. Southern Zone: These tribal communities reside in the Central and Southern regions of the Western Ghats. The tribal populations in Western Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Western Tamil Nadu, and Kerala are encompassed within this geographical zone. Prominent tribes in the Nilgiri region include the Toda, Kota, and Bagada. Additionally, significant tribes in this area comprise the Kurumba, Kadar, Paniyan, Chenchu, Allar, Nayak, and Chetti.
5. Eastern Zone: This region encompasses the tribes residing in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, and Bihar. In Odisha, you can find tribes such as Juang, Kharia, Khond, and Bhumij. Jharkhand is home to tribes like Munda, Oraon, Santhal, Ho, and Birhor, all belonging to the Austric language family and communicating through Kol and Munda languages.
6. Western Zone: This area includes Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Western Rajasthan, and northern Andhra Pradesh. The principal tribal communities in Rajasthan consist of Bhil, Garasia, Mina, Banjara, Sansi, and Saharia. In Gujarat, the notable tribes include Mahadeokoli, Bali, and Dabala. In Madhya Pradesh, the Jayanti tribe is predominant.
7. Island Region: The tribal communities residing in the region include the tribes of Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep. Among the prominent tribes in Andaman & Nicobar are the Shompen, Onge, Jarwa, and Sentineli, facing the threat of gradual extinction. These tribes are affiliated with the Negrito racial group.
Socio-Cultural Profile of the Tribes
Tribes in India constitute a segment of the population that is native to a particular state or region, residing apart from the mainstream society. Referred to collectively as Adivasis, these tribal communities are predominantly found in Orissa, Rajasthan, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka. Madhya Pradesh holds the highest tribal population in India, followed by Bihar.
Examining the socio-cultural attributes of these tribal communities, including factors such as geographical isolation, distinctive characteristics, cultural practices, and socio-economic challenges, we can gain insights into the socio-cultural profiles of certain tribes in the aforementioned states:
1. Bhils Tribe: The Bhils constitute a predominant tribal community inhabiting the mountainous regions of Udaipur and various districts in Rajasthan. Recognized as the largest tribal group in India, they communicate using the Bhili language. Noteworthy cultural expressions of the Bhil community include the Ghoomar dance, Than Gair—a dance drama, and the Baneshwar Fair.
2. Gonds Tribe: The Gond tribes predominantly inhabit the Chhindwara district of Madhya Pradesh, as well as regions in Maharashtra, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. Ranking as the second-largest tribe in India, the Gonds are renowned for their courage and communicate in various Indian languages, notably the Dravidian Gondi language. In the Gondi forests, they construct dwellings with mud walls and thatched roofs. Agriculture serves as their primary livelihood. Keslapur Jathra and Madai stand out as significant festivals within their cultural traditions.
3. Munda Tribe: This tribal group resides in Jharkhand and spans across regions in Chattisgarh, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal. Their lifestyle is characterized by simplicity and a basic existence. The Mundas communicate using the Mundari language. Historically, they were hunters, but today they primarily work as laborers in agricultural fields. Their religious practices center around the Sarna faith, with devotion to a deity named Singbonga. The Munda language is Killi, and the Nupur dance serves as a primary source of entertainment. Festivals such as Mage, Karam, Sarhaul, and Phagu hold significance in the Munda tribe’s cultural celebrations.
4. Santhal Tribe: The Santhal community holds significant prominence in West Bengal and extends its presence to regions in Bihar, Odisha, and Assam, constituting the largest tribe in Jharkhand. Their livelihood primarily relies on agriculture and animal husbandry, and their adept hunting skills contribute to their sustenance. The cultural richness of the Santhal tribe is showcased through traditional festivals such as Karam and Sahrai, while their captivating dance and music further add to the allure of their heritage.
5. Toto Tribe: Totapara village, located in the Alipurdoar district of West Bengal, serves as the residence for the Toto tribe. The Toto language lacks a written script and exhibits influences from both Nepali and Bengali. To sustain their uncomplicated lifestyle, they engage in the trade of vegetables and fruits. While identifying as Hindus, the Toto tribe holds faith in God Ishpa and Goddess Cheima.
6. Bodo Tribe: The Bodo community resides in Assam, as well as certain regions of West Bengal and Nagaland. Recognized as the original inhabitants of Assam, they communicate in the Bodo language, a Tibetan-Burmese dialect. The art of handloom weaving holds significant cultural importance for them. Additionally, they commemorate the Baishagu festival during the spring season, a festivity dedicated to Lord Shiva.
7. Angami Tribe: The Angami Nagas constitute a prominent tribal community residing in the Kohima district of Nagaland. Traditionally, the men don white Mhoushu attire paired with black Lohe, while the women adorn themselves in Mechala and accessorize with bead ornaments, mask pendants, bracelets, and more. Renowned for their cultural richness, the Angami Nagas are particularly celebrated for the Hornbill Festival, a global attraction drawing visitors from diverse corners of the world. Their skilled craftsmanship is evident in intricate art, woodwork, as well as bamboo and cane creations. Additionally, the tribe communicates through various dialects such as Gnamei, Ngami, and Tsoghami.
8. Bhutia Tribe: The Bhutias primarily inhabit Sikkim, as well as certain regions of West Bengal and Tripura. With Tibetan roots, they communicate in the Lhopo or Sikkimese language. Renowned for their artistic expressions and culinary skills, they favor momos, steamed meat dumplings, as a dietary staple. Additionally, Thukpa, a noodle dish in a savory broth, is among their notable culinary offerings. Festivals like Losar and Loosong hold significance in their celebrations.
9. Khasi Tribe: This tribal group predominantly resides in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya, as well as in various regions of Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and West Bengal. Known for their rich musical traditions, the tribe engages in the vibrant expression of music through various instruments such as drums, guitars, flutes, cymbals, and more. One of their significant celebrations is the Nongkrem festival, spanning five days, during which women adorn themselves in Jainsem attire, while men wear the traditional Jymphong.
10. Garo Tribe: The Garo tribes predominantly inhabit the hills of Meghalaya and regions in Assam, Nagaland, and West Bengal. Notably, the Garo tribe stands out as one of the rare matrilineal societies globally. Distinctive in their architectural style, the Garo people employ unique designs such as Nokmong, Nokpante, Jamadaal, and Jamsireng. Traditional ornaments are an integral part of the attire worn by tribal women, while men don their customary clothing complemented by a turban adorned with feathers. The Wangala festival marks a significant celebration in their cultural calendar.
11. Nyishi Tribe: This tribal group resides in the Arunachal Pradesh mountain region, predominantly concentrated in the Kurung Kumey, Papum Pare, Upper, and Lower Subansiri districts. Their primary spoken language is Nishi. A significant portion of the community has embraced Christianity, while others continue to adhere to a faith centered around spirits connected to the natural world. The Nyokum festival, observed annually in February, venerates the goddess Nyokum.
12. Warli Tribe: The community resides in both Maharashtra and Gujarat and is renowned for their Warli Art. This distinctive form of artistic expression involves using a blend of cow dung, earth, rice paste, bamboo sticks, and red ochre to craft intricate art, paintings, and murals. Celebrating their cultural practices, they engage in the Tarpa dance during the harvest season and host the Warli Folk Art Dancing People Festival annually in March.
13. Chenchu Tribe: This tribal group originates from Andhra Pradesh and resides within the Nallamala Hills forests. They can also be found in Kurnool, Nalgonda, and Guntur districts. Engaging in hunting and the trade of forest resources such as honey, roots, gums, fruits, and tubers, they possess a distinctive Telugu-accented language and exhibit strong adherence to rituals.
14. Siddis Tribe: This tribe in Karnataka is thought to trace its origins back to the Bantu people of Southeast Africa. Historical accounts suggest that these individuals were forcibly brought to the region as slaves by the Portuguese. Presently, they inhabit different areas across Karnataka. The predominant religious affiliation among them is Christianity, although some also adhere to Hinduism and Islam. Known for their inclination towards ritual practices, dance, and music, they contribute to the cultural diversity of the region.
15. Soliga Tribe: The Soligas reside in the thick woodland regions of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. This native community consists of five distinct segments: Male Soliga, Kadu, Burude, Pujari, and Urali Soliga. The Soligas communicate through the Sholaga language, which bears influences from Kannada and Tamil. Their primary means of sustenance involves trading harvested products such as Raggi, honey, wild turmeric, algae, and bamboo.
16. Kodava Tribe: This tribe hailing from Mysore, Karnataka, primarily resides in Coorg. Renowned for their courage, this tribe follows a patrilineal system and originates from Kodagu, also known as Coorg. The members of this tribe communicate in the Kodava language and are primarily engaged in agriculture. Both men and women within the community share a strong enthusiasm for hockey. Besides observing traditional festivals like Kailpodhu, Puttari, and Kaveri Sankraman, they annually celebrate the Kodava Hockey festival.
17. Toda Tribe: The Todas inhabit regions of the Nilgiris mountain range in Tamil Nadu, relying on cattle farming and dairy for their sustenance. Their expertise in architecture is evident in the construction of bamboo houses with oval and tent-shaped designs, topped with thatched roofs. The renowned Toda embroidery, known as Pukhoor, is highly praised. Modhweth stands out as their key festival.
18. Irular Tribe: The tribe resides in regions of the Nilgiri mountains spanning Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Ranking as the second-largest tribe in Kerala, they predominantly settle in the Palakkad district. Engaged primarily in agriculture, their livelihood revolves around cultivating crops such as paddy, dhal, raggi, chilies, turmeric, and plantains. This group is characterized by their adherence to rituals, a unique belief system in their deities, and a reputation for proficiency in the practice of black magic.
19. Kurumba Tribe: This prominent tribal group is located in various regions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. They stand as one of the earliest inhabitants of the Western Ghats, maintaining a straightforward way of life centered around agriculture, as well as the collection of honey and wax. Proficient in crafting traditional herbal remedies, they have gained recognition in the area for their expertise in practices such as witchcraft and magic.
20. Great Andamanese Tribe: This tribal group consists of the Jarawa, Jangil, Onge, and Sentinelese residing on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Regarded as the original inhabitants of the islands, they communicate using the Bo, Khora, Jeru, and Sare languages. Preferring seclusion, they tend to avoid contact with external parties.
India is home to approximately 645 tribes, and the Indian government is actively committed to the advancement of these communities, aiming to integrate their valuable contributions into mainstream society. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is responsible for planning and coordinating development programs tailored to the needs of these tribes. Many tribes are currently undergoing significant transformations and facing challenges in preserving their traditional ways of life amid the ongoing processes of industrialization and development. The areas inhabited by these tribes are frequently earmarked for various developmental projects, leading to a recurring conflict between developmental agencies and the indigenous communities. Therefore, it is crucial to recognize and address the issues and concerns of these indigenous people, who represent the essential foundations of human existence. Prioritizing their well-being in development proposals is imperative to ensure their continued existence and to resolve conflicts, ultimately paving the way for a more inclusive and harmonious future.
Changes in Tribal Society
Tribes are increasingly recognizing the importance of safeguarding their ethnic and cultural heritage, as well as defending against potential exploitation by individuals from outside their group. They are emphasizing political unity to protect their interests. However, this collective stance may inadvertently lead to a form of isolation that combines ecological and cultural aspects. Economic challenges and a sense of disillusionment often drive these communities to take such measures. Following are the major changes which occurs in tribal society:
1. Change in Lifestyle: The lifestyle of tribals, particularly those who live in or near the urban areas has changed. Many of their traditional traits have been replaced by foreign traits.
2. Change in Cultural Identify: The tribes are experiencing a form of change that does not entail the loss of their identity or traditional cultural heritage. Scholars such as Bose (1953), Dutta Majumdar (1937), Deogaonkar (1990), Raha, and Debash Ro have identified instances of tribal Hinduization. Examples include the Pati Rabhas in Assam, Hos and Juangs in Orissa, Santhals in Bihar, and Bhumij, Oraon, Munda, and Korkus in Maharashtra. These tribes are observed to be incorporating new cultural traits into their way of life.
3. Adaptation of Other Culture: In certain regions of India, tribal communities have embraced elements from different cultures, such as Christianity. Tribes like the Nagas, Mizo, Santhals, Oraon, Munda, Kharia and others in the North East and North West regions of the country have integrated diverse cultural influences.
4. Indifferent Toward Traditional Life: The transformation observed in Chotanagpur tribal individuals employed as labourers in tea gardens in Assam and North Bengal is most apparent in their material circumstances rather than in their religious convictions and rituals. These individuals have adopted a more individualistic perspective, leading to a growing indifference toward their traditional way of life.
5. Industrialization: The introduction of agro-industrialization in tribal regions has significantly impacted the socio-cultural fabric of tribal communities. This influence is evident in alterations to family dynamics, modifications in the institution of marriage, shifts in authority structures, changes in interpersonal relationships, and a noticeable decline in the influence of clan panchayats.
6. Converting into Class: Tribal workers have formed a distinct ‘class,’ providing them with an expanded avenue to engage in active politics. Those belonging to tribal communities, employed in mines or various occupations for an extended period, find it challenging to maintain ties with their traditional community. Consequently, they are forced to adapt to new systems, forsaking their traditional beliefs and social practices in favor of embracing new attitudes and behaviour patterns.
7. Discarding Traditional Practices: Tribal communities are abandoning age-old customs and embracing contemporary ideologies, yet the influence of modern forces doesn’t always yield positive outcomes for them. Numerous tribes grapple with issues of maladjustment, where the pursuit of happiness is often overshadowed by experiences of suffering.
Conclusion: Based on the preceding information, it is apparent that the tribal communities have undergone significant cultural, social, and economic transformations as a result of exposure to various influences. While these forces have brought several benefits to them, they have also introduced certain detrimental aspects into their communities. A considerable number of tribals have experienced the loss of their land and forest rights, falling prey to exploitation by moneylenders, affluent landowners, traders, entrepreneurs, and other individuals.
Reference and Readings:
Anthropological Perspectives on Indian Tribes, by Subhadra Mitra Channa, https://amzn.to/4brBhhj
The Seven Sisters of India: Tribal Worlds Between Tibet and Burma (African, Asian & Oceanic Art S.), by Peter Van Ham, Aglaja Stirn, https://amzn.to/3Xunl0h